UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


A  Manual 

of 

American   Literature 


Edited  by 
Theodore  Stanton,  M.A.  (Cornell) 

In  Collaboration  with 

Members  of  the  Faculty  of 

Cornell  University 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New   York    and  London 

Gbe      fvntcfccrbocfccr      press 
1909 


COPYRIGHT,  1909 

BY 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 


ttbe  ftnfcfeerbocfeer  f>r«0,  Hew 


TO 

PRESIDENT   THEODORE   ROOSEVELT 

THIS 
MEMORIAL  VOLUME 

IS    DEDICATED 
IN   TOKEN    OF   HIGH    REGARD   AND    ADMIRATION. 

TAUCHNITZ. 


208584 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


THIS  book  has  been  prepared  for  publication  as  No. 
4000,  a  "Memorial  Volume,"  of  the  "Tauchnitz  Edition." 
Perhaps  it  may  be  well  to  explain  to  American  readers 
what  the  "Tauchnitz  Edition"  is  and  what  a  "Memorial 
Volume"  is  in  this  collection. 

The  "Collection  of  British  Authors,"  or,  as  it  is  more 
popularly  known  on  the  European  Continent,  the  "Tauch- 
nitz  Edition,"  was  instituted  in  1841,  at  Leipsic,  by  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  German  publishers,  the  late 
Baron  Bernhard  Tauchnitz,  whose  son  is  now  at  the  head 
of  the  house.  The  father  records  that  he  was  "incited  to 
the  undertaking  by  the  high  opinion  and  enthusiastic 
fondness  which  I  have  ever  entertained  for  English  litera 
ture:  a  literature  springing  from  the  selfsame  root  as  the 
literature  of  Germany,  and  cultivated  in  the  beginning  by 
the  same  Saxon  race.  .  .  .  As  a  German-Saxon  it  gave  me 
particular  pleasure  to  promote  the  literary  interest  of  my 
Anglo-Saxon  cousins,  by  rendering  English  literature  as 
universally  known  as  possible  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
British  Empire. "  In  another  place,  Baron  Tauchnitz 
describes  "the  mission"  of  his  Collection  to  be  the  "spread 
ing  and  strengthening  the  love  for  English  literature  out 
side  of  England  and  her  Colonies.  " 

Baron  Tauchnitz  early  felt  that  the  general  title  of  the 
series,  "Collection  of  British  Authors,"  was  a  misnomer, 


vi  Editor's  Preface 

which  might  even  give  offence  to  an  important  branch 
of  the  English-speaking  race;  for,  though  Bulwer  and 
Dickens  led  off  in  the  Collection,  "Pelham"  being  the  first 
volume  issued  and  "  The  Pickwick  Papers  "  the  second,  the 
fourth  volume,  added  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year 
of  publication,  in  1842,  was  Fenimore  Cooper's  "The  Spy," 
followed  in  the  same  year  by  a  second  volume  of  the  same 
author.  Furthermore,  the  year  1843  opened  with  Wash 
ington  Irving' s  "  Sketch  Book,"  immediately  followed  by  a 
third  novel  by  Cooper;  and,  though  it  was  not  till  1850 
that  another  American  work  gained  admittance  into  this 
charmed  circle,  not  fewer  than  three  of  Irving's  books 
succeeded  one  another  in  the  single  twelvemonth.  In  1852, 
Hawthorne  was  welcomed  with  "  The  Scarlet  Letter  "  and 
Mrs.  Stowe  with  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  " ;  from  that  time  on, 
scarcely  a  year  has  passed  without  some  new  American 
book  being  included  in  the  Collection,  and  under  the  present 
routine  each  year's  issue,  comprising  some  seventy-five 
volumes,  includes  several  American  works. 

In  fact,  the  representation  of  American  authors  in  the 
"Tauchnitz  Edition"  is  now  so  considerable  that  the  list 
calls  for  a  place  by  itself  at  the  end  of  this  volume,  where  it 
presents  an  interesting  evidence  of  the  growth  of  the  popu 
larity  of  American  literature  in  Europe.  The  reader  will 
notice  that  there  are  cases  where  some  of  the  best  works 
of  an  author  are  not  included  in  the  "  Tauchnitz  Edition. " 
The  cause  of  these  omissions  is  sometimes  other  than  taste 
or  choice.  But  the  catalogue  is  suggestive  just  as  it  stands. 

The  "Memorial  Volumes"  form  a  little  series  of  special 
issues  published  at  turning-points.  This  Manual  has  been 
made  a  Memorial  Volume  out  of  compliment  to  American 
literature  and  is  dedicated,  with  his  permission,  to  Presi 
dent  Roosevelt.  In  this  way,  the  present  Baron  Tauchnitz 
has  striven  to  show  his  high  appreciation  of  the  group  of 
American  authors  in  the  Edition,  and  to  follow  in  the 
footsteps  of  his  high-minded  father. 


Editor's  Preface  vii 

In  his  Preface  to  the  first  Memorial  Volume,  No.  500, 
entitled  "Five  Centuries  of  the  English  Language  and  Litera 
ture,"  being  a  collection  of  characteristic  specimens  of 
British  writers  from  Wycliffe  to  Thomas  Gray,  the  first 
Baron  Tauchnitz  refers  to  the  literature  "on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlantic, "  and  says  in  a  footnote  to  this  Preface: 
"A  glance  at  my  list  of  authors  will  show  that  America 
has  contributed  no  small  part  to  my  Collection.  Neverthe 
less  I  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  alter  the  title  under 
which  my  undertaking  was  started,  as  I  thought  that  the 
term  'British  Authors'  might  not  improperly  be  applied 
to  writers  employing  the  language  common  to  the  two  na 
tions  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic."  No.  1000 — Tisch- 
endorf's  edition  of  The  New  Testament — is  dedicated  "to 
my  English  and  American  Authors,  "  while  in  No.  2000 — ' '  Of 
English  Literature  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria,  with  a  Glance 
at  the  Past  " — the  author,  the  late  Prof essor  Henry  Morley, 
who  long  filled  the  chair  of  English  Literature  at  the  Univer 
sity  of  London,  opens  his  Preface  with  these  words:  "When 
Baron  Tauchnitz  asked  me  to  write  this  little  book,  he  also 
wished  me  to  include  in  it  some  record  of  the  literature  of 
America.  But  Baron  Tauchnitz  cordially  agreed  to  a 
suggestion  that  the  kindred  literature  of  America,  though 
we  are  proud  in  England  to  claim  closest  brotherhood 
with  our  fellow-countrymen  of  the  United  States,  has 
a  distinct  interest  of  its  own,  large  enough  for  the  whole 
subject  of  another  memorial  volume,  and  that  an  Ameri 
can  author  would  best  tell  the  story  of  its  rise  and 
progress. " 

Another  work  in  the  "Tauchnitz  Edition,"  but  not  a 
Memorial  Volume,  offered  a  good  opportunity  to  present 
American  literature  to  the  attention  of  the  European  public. 
I  refer  to  the  two  volumes  of  the  late  George  L.  Craik,  some 
time  Professor  of  English  Literature  at  Queen's  College,  Bel 
fast,  entitled  ' '  A  Manual  of  English  Literature,  and  of  the 
History  of  the  English  Language,  from  the  Norman  Con- 


viii  Editor's  Preface 

quest;  with  Numerous  Specimens."  Here  again  no  space  is 
given  to  our  authors,  though  they  are  mentioned  once  in  a 
reference  to  "the  leading  poetical  writers  who  have  arisen 
in  the  American  division  of  the  English  race,  two  or  three 
of  whom  may  be  reckoned  as  of  the  second  rank,  though 
certainly  not  one  as  of  the  first. " 

Towards  the  end  of  1893,  as  the  time  was  approaching  for 
the  issuing  of  No.  3000,  and  again,  in  1900,  when  No. 
3500  was  soon  to  be  reached,  I  hinted  to  my  Leipsic  friends 
the  peculiar  fitness  of  singling  out  one  of  these  possible 
Memorial  Volumes  and  making  it  a  sketch  of  our  literary 
life,  in  accordance  with  the  promise  made  in  Professor 
Morley's  Preface.  I  even  suggested  that  Professor  Moses 
Coit  Tyler,  who  had  then  just  completed  his  great  work  on 
our  literature,  be  invited  to  perform  the  task.  The  last 
letter  I  ever  received  from  this  genial  spirit,  dated  from  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  September  5,  1897,  contains  this  passage: 
' '  I  appreciate  the  honour  you  have  done  me  in  mentioning 
my  name  to  Baron  Tauchnitz,  in  connection  with  a  pro 
posed  volume  on  American  literature.  "  Nothing,  however, 
came  of  this;  and  when,  some  ten  years  later,  I  was  invited 
to  prepare  the  present  volume,  my  first  thought  was  to 
utilise  the  magnum  opus  of  Professor  Tyler,  who  had,  in 
the  meanwhile,  passed  away.  So  my  chief  care  has  been 
the  first  two  chapters,  drawn,  with  the  kind  permission  of 
the  publishers,  Messrs.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  and  of  the 
family  of  Professor  Tyler,  from  his  four  authoritative 
volumes,  "  A  History  of  American  Literature  during  the 
Colonial  Period,"  and  "The  Literary  History  of  the  American 
Revolution,"  to  which  Sir  George  Otto  Trevelyan  refers  in 
his  "American  Revolution"  as  "a  remarkable  specimen  of 
the  historical  faculty. " 

The  chief  labour  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume  has 
fallen  upon  my  friends  and  collaborators  of  the  Depart 
ment  of  English  and  the  Sage  School  of  Philosophy  of  my 
Alma  Mater.  Acknowledgment  is,  further,  particularly  due 


Editor's  Preface  ix 

to  Professors  J.  M.  Hart  and  M.  W.  Sampson,  also  of  Cornell 
University,  for  valuable  suggestions  and  considerable  help. 
The  work  of  seeing  the  American  edition  through  the  press 
has  been  done  by  Professors  Northup  and  Cooper. 

THEODORE  STANTON. 
PARIS,  September,  1908. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

COLONIAL  LITERATURE. 

By  the  late  MOSES  COIT  TYLER,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  American  History  in  Cornell  University. 
Abridged  by  the  Editor. 

I.     First  Period  (1607-1676)        .          .          .          .          i 

II.     Second  Period  (1676—1765)    .          .          .          .19 

III.     General  Literary  Forces  in  the  Colonial  Time       30 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD. 

By  the  late  MOSES  COIT  TYLER.  Abridged  by  the 
Editor. 

I.     A  General  View   ......        39 

II.     The  Principal  Writers 48 

THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

I.     The  Historians     .          .          .          .          .          .89 

By  ISAAC  MADISON  BENTLEY,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro 
fessor  of  Psychology  in  Cornell  University. 

II.     The  Novelists 115 

By  CLARK  SUTHERLAND  NORTHUP,  Ph.D.,  Assistant 
Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  Litera 
ture  in  Cornell  University. 

III.     The  Poets 240 

By  LANE  COOPER,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  the 
English  Language  and  ..Literature  in  Cornell 
University. 


xii  Contents 

PAGE 

IV.     The  Essayists  and  the  Humorists  .          .          .321 
By  ELMER  JAMES  BAILEY,  A.M.,  Instructor  in  Eng 
lish  in  Cornell  University. 

V.     The  Orators  and  the  Divines  .          .          -359 

By  LANE  COOPER. 

VI.     The  Scientists      .          ...          •          •          .392 
By  CLARK  SUTHERLAND  NORTHUP. 

VII.     The  Periodicals    .          .          .          .        Y         .      434 
By  CLARK  SUTHERLAND  NORTHUP. 

LIST    OF    AMERICAN    AUTHORS    IN    THE    TAUCHNITZ 

EDITION  .          .          .          .          ...     455 

INDEX.          .  .          .          .          .          .  457 

By  JOSEPH    Q.   ADAMS,   JR.,    Ph.D.,    Instructor   in 
English    in    Cornell    University. 


Colonial   Literature 

and 
The  Literature  of  the  Revolutionary  Period 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


A  Manual  of  American 
Literature 


COLONIAL  LITERATURE 

I.       FIRST  PERIOD       (1607-1676) 

The  Beginning. — The  present  race  of  Americans  who 
are  of  English  lineage — that  is,  the  most  numerous  and 
decidedly  the  dominant  portion  of  the  American  people 
of  to-day — are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  crowds  of 
Englishmen  who  came  to  America  in  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury.  Our  first  literary  period,  therefore,  fills  the  larger 
part  of  that  century  in  which  American  civilisation  had  its 
planting ;  even  as  its  training  into  some  maturity  and  power 
has  been  the  business  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  nineteenth 
centuries.  Of  course,  also,  the  most  of  the  men  who 
produced  American  literature  during  that  period  were 
immigrant  authors  of  English  birth  and  English  culture; 
while  the  most  of  those  who  have  produced  American 
literature  in  the  subsequent  periods  have  been  authors  of 
American  birth  and  of  American  culture.  Notwithstanding 
their  English  birth,  these  first  writers  in  America  were 
Americans:  we  may  not  exclude  them  from  our  story  of 
American  literature.  They  founded  that  literature;  they 
are  its  Fathers;  they  stamped  their  spiritual  lineaments 
upon  it ;  and  we  shall  never  deeply  enter  into  the  meaning 

i 


2         A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

of  American  literature  in  its  later  forms  without  tracing  it 
back,  affectionately,  to  its  beginning  with  them.  At  the 
same  time,  our  first  literary  epoch  cannot  fail  to  bear  traces 
of  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  men  who  made  it  were  English 
men  who  had  become  Americans  merely  by  removing  to 
America.  American  life,  indeed,  at  once  reacted  upon 
their  minds,  and  began  to  give  its  tone  and  hue  to  their 
words;  and  for  every  reason,  what  they  wrote  here,  we 
rightfully  claim  as  a  part  of  American  literature ;  but  Eng 
land  has  a  right  to  claim  it  likewise  as  a  part  of  English 
literature.  Indeed  England  and  America  are  joint  pro 
prietors  of  this  first  tract  of  the  great  literary  territory 
which  we  have  undertaken  to  survey. 

Since  the  earliest  English  colonists  upon  these  shores 
began  to  make  a  literature  as  soon  as  they  arrived  here, 
it  follows  that  we  can  fix  the  exact  date  of  the  birth  of 
American  literature.  It  is  that  year  1607,  when  English 
men,  by  transplanting  themselves  to  America,  first  began 
to  be  Americans.  Thus  may  the  history  of  our  literature 
be  traced  back  from  the  present  hour,  as  it  recedes  along 
the  track  of  our  national  life,  through  the  early  days  of 
the  republic,  through  five  generations  of  colonial  existence, 
until,  in  the  first  decade  of  the  seventeenth  century,  it  is 
merged  in  its  splendid  parentage — the  written  speech  of 
England. 

The  First  Writer. — Among  those  first  Englishmen  huddled 
together  behind  palisadoes  in  Jamestown  in  1607,  were 
some  who  laid  the  foundations  of  American  literature,  and 
there  was  one  who  still  has  a  considerable  name  in  the 
world.  When  he  first  set  foot  in  Virginia,  Captain  John 
Smith  was  only  twenty-seven  years  old;  but  even  then  he 
had  made  himself  somewhat  famous  in  England  as  a  daring 
traveller  in  Southern  Europe,  in  Turkey  and  the  East. 
This  extremely  vivid  and  resolute  man  comes  before  us 
for  study,  not  because  he  was  the  most  conspicuous  person 


Colonial  Literature  3 

in  the  first  successful  American  colony,  but  because  he  was 
the  writer  of  the  first  book  in  American  literature.  A 
True  Relation  of  Virginia  is  of  deep  interest  to  us,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  graphic  style  and  the  strong  light  it 
throws  upon  the  very  beginning  of  our  national  history, 
but  as  being  unquestionably  the  earliest  book  in  American 
literature.  It  was  written  during  the  first  thirteen  months 
of  the  life  of  the  first  American  colony,  and  gives  a  simple 
and  picturesque  account  of  the  stirring  events  which  took 
place  there  during  that  time,  under  his  own  eye.  After 
all  the  abatements  which  a  fair  criticism  must  make  from 
the  praise  of  Captain  John  Smith  either  as  a  doer  or  as  a 
narrator,  his  writings  still  make  upon  us  the  impression  of 
a  certain  personal  largeness  in  him,  magnanimity,  affluence, 
sense,  and  executive  force.  As  a  writer  his  merits  are  really 
great — clearness,  force,  vividness,  picturesque  and  dra 
matic  energy,  a  diction  racy  and  crisp ;  and  during  the  first 
two  decades  of  the  seventeenth  century  he  did  more  than 
any  other  Englishman  to  make  an  American  nation  and 
an  American  literature  possible. 

William  Strachey. — During  the  first  decade  of  Ameri 
can  literature  a  little  book  was  written  in  Virginia,  which, 
as  is  believed  by  some  authors,  soon  rendered  an  illustrious 
service  to  English  literature  by  suggesting  to  Shakespeare 
the  idea  of  one  of  his  noblest  masterpieces,  The  Tempest. 
It  was  in  May,  1610,  that  Sir  Thomas  Gates,  with  two 
small  vessels  and  150  companions,  had  at  last  found  his 
way  into  the  James  River  after  a  voyage  of  almost  in 
credible  difficulty  and  peril.  Among  those  who  had  borne 
a  part  in  this  ghastly  and  almost  miraculous  expedition 
was  William  Strachey,  of  whom  but  little  is  known  except 
what  is  revealed  in  his  own  writings.  He  was  a  man  of 
decided  literary  aptitude.  Soon  after  his  arrival  here  he 
was  made  secretary  of  Virginia,  and  in  July,  1610,  he 
wrote  at  Jamestown  and  sent  off  to  England  A  True 


4         A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Repertory  of  the  Wrack  and  Redemption  of  Sir  Thomas 
Gates,  Kt.,  upon  and  from  the  Islands  of  the  Bermudas. 
Whoever  reads  this  little  book  will  be  quite  ready  to  be 
lieve  that  it  may  have  brought  suggestion  and  inspiration 
even  to  the  genius  of  William  Shakespeare.  It  is  a  book 
of  marvellous  power.  Its  account  of  Virginia  is  well  done ; 
but  its  most  striking  merit  is  its  delineation  of  his  dreadful 
sea- voyage,  and  particularly  of  the  tempest  which,  after 
the  terror  and  anguish  of  a  thousand  deaths,  drove  them 
upon  the  rocks  of  the  Bermudas.  Here  his  style  becomes 
magnificent;  it  has  some  sentences  which  for  imaginative 
and  pathetic  beauty,  for  vivid  implications  of  appalling 
danger  and  disaster,  can  hardly  be  surpassed  in  the  whole 
range  of  English  prose. 

George  Sandys. — The  last  one  of  this  group  of  early 
writers,  George  Sandys,  was  perhaps  the  only  one  of  all 
his  fellow-craftsmen  here  who  was  a  professed  man  of 
letters.  He  was  well  known  as  a  traveller  in  Eastern  lands, 
as  a  scholar,  as  an  admirable  prose-writer,  but  especially 
as  a  poet.  His  claim  to  the  title  of  poet  then  rested  chiefly 
on  his  fine  metrical  translation  of  the  first  five  books  of 
Ovid's  Metamorphoses.  This  fragment  was  a  specimen 
of  literary  workmanship  in  many  ways  creditable ;  and  that 
he  was  able,  during  the  next  few  years,  robbing  sleep  of  its 
rights,  to  complete  his  noble  translation  of  the  fifteen  books, 
is  worthy  of  being  chronicled  among  the  heroisms  of  author 
ship.  In  1626,  he  brought  out  in  London,  in  a  folio  volume, 
the  first  edition  of  his  finished  work.  The  writings  which 
precede  this  book  in  our  literary  history  were  all  produced 
for  some  immediate  practical  purpose,  and  not  with  any 
avowed  literary  intentions.  This  book  may  well  have  for 
us  a  sort  of  sacredness,  as  being  the  first  monument  of 
English  poetry,  of  classical  scholarship,  and  of  deliberate 
literary  art,  reared  on  these  shores.  And  when  we  open 
the  book,  and  examine  it  with  reference  to  its  merits,  first, 


Colonial  Literature  5 

as  a  faithful  rendering  of  the  Latin  text,  and,  second,  as  a 
specimen  of  fluent,  idiomatic,  and  musical  English  poetry f 
we  find  that  in  both  particulars  it  is  a  work  that  we  may  be 
proud  to  claim  as  in  some  sense  our  own,  and  to  honour  as 
the  morning-star  at  once  of  poetry  and  of  scholarship  in 
the  New  World. 

The  Burwell  Papers. — In  the  year  1676  there  occurred 
in  Virginia  an  outburst  of  popular  excitement  which,  for  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years  afterward,  was  grotesquely  mis 
represented  by  the  historians,  and  which  only  within  recent 
years  has  begun  to  work  itself  clear  of  the  traditional  per 
version.  This  excitement  is  still  indicated  by  the  sinister 
name  that  was  at  first  applied  to  it,  Bacon's  Rebellion. 
With  this  remarkable  event  the  literary  history  of  Virginia 
now  becomes  curiously  involved. 

In  the  spring  of  1676,  at  the  very  moment  when  the 
minds  of  men  were  torn  by  anxieties  at  the  lawless  inter 
ference  of  the  King  and  Parliament  with  their  most  valuable 
rights,  suddenly  there  swept  toward  them  the  terror  of 
an  aggressive  Indian  war.  The  people  called  upon  the 
royal  Governor,  Sir  William  Berkeley,  to  take  the  necessary 
measures  for  repelling  these  assaults.  For  reasons  of 
jealousy,  indolence,  selfishness,  and  especially  avarice, 
this  Governor  gave  to  the  people  promises  of  help,  and 
promises  only.  Then  the  people  arose  in  their  anger, 
and  since  their  Governor  would  not  lead  them  to  the  war, 
with  unanimous  voice  they  called  upon  one  of  their  own 
number  to  be  their  leader,  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  man  only 
thirty  years  of  age,  of  considerable  landed  wealth,  of  high 
social  connections,  a  lawyer  trained  in  the  Inns  of  Court 
in  London,  an  orator  of  commanding  eloquence,  a  man 
who  by  his  endowments  of  brain  and  eye  and  hand  was 
a  natural  leader  and  king  of  men.  He  obeyed  the  call 
of  the  people  and  led  them  against  the  Indians,  whom 
he  drove  back  with  tremendous  punishment.  But  by  the 


6         A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

jealous  and  haughty  despot  in  the  governor's  chair,  he 
was  at  once  proclaimed  a  rebel;  a  price  was  set  upon  his 
head;  and  the  people  who  followed  him  were  put  under 
ban.  Then  followed  a  series  of  swift  conflicts,  military 
and  political,  between  Bacon  and  the  Governor;  and  at 
last,  in  that  same  year,  Bacon  himself  died,  suddenly  and 
mysteriously,  and  twenty-five  persons  were  hung  or  shot. 

Shortly  after  our  Revolutionary  War,  it  was  discovered 
that  in  an  old  and  honourable  family  in  the  Northern  Neck 
of  Virginia,  some  manuscripts  had  been  preserved,  evi 
dently  belonging  to  the  seventeenth  century,  evidently 
written  by  one  or  more  of  the  adherents  of  Nathaniel 
Bacon.  These  manuscripts  are  sometimes  called  the  Bur- 
well  Papers,  from  the  name  of  a  family  in  King  William 
County  by  whom  they  were  first  given  to  the  public.  The 
author  of  the  prose  portion  of  these  manuscripts  reflects, 
on  this  side  of  the  ocean,  the  literary  foibles  that  were 
in  fashion  on  the  other  side  of  the  ocean.  But  apart 
from  the  disagreeable  air  of  verbal  affectation  and  of  effort 
in  these  writings,  they  are  undeniably  spirited;  they  pro 
duce  before  us  departed  scenes  with  no  little  energy  and 
life;  and  the  flavour  of  mirth  which  seasons  them  is  not 
unpleasant. 

As  the  cause  of  Bacon's  death  was  a  mystery,  so  a  mys 
tery  covered  even  the  place  of  his  burial;  for  his  friends, 
desiring  to  save  his  lifeless  body  from  violation  at  the 
hands  of  the  victorious  party,  placed  it  secretly  in  the 
earth.  And  the  love  of  Bacon's  followers,  which  in  his  life 
time  had  shown  itself  in  services  of  passionate  devotion, 
and  which,  after  his  death,  thus  hovered  as  a  protecting 
silence  over  his  hidden  grave,  found  expression  also  in  some 
sorrowing  verses  that,  upon  the  whole,  are  of  astonishing 
poetic  merit.  Who  may  have  been  the  author  of  these 
verses,  it  is  perhaps  now  impossible  to  discover.  They 
are  prefaced  by  the  quaint  remark  that  after  Bacon  "was 
dead,  he  was  bemoaned  in  lines  drawn  by  the  man  that 


Colonial  Literature  7 

waited  upon  his  person  as  it  is  said,  and  who  attended  his 
corpse  to  their  burial-place."  Of  course  this  statement  is 
but  a  blind ;  the  author  of  such  a  eulogy  of  the  dead  rebel 
could  not  safely  avow  himself.  But  certainly  no  menial 
of  Bacon's,  no  mere  "man  that  waited  upon  his  person," 
could  have  written  this  noble  dirge,  which  has  a  stateliness, 
a  compressed  energy,  and  a  mournful  eloquence,  reminding 
one  of  the  commemorative  verse  of  Ben  Jonson. 

Early  Literature  in  Virginia  and  New  England. — During 
the  first  epoch  in  the  history  of  American  literature,  there 
were  but  two  localities  which  produced  in  the  English 
language  anything  that  can  be  called  literature, — Virginia 
and  New  England.  As  we  have  seen,  there  were  in  Vir 
ginia,  during  the  first  twenty  years  of  its  existence,  authors 
who  produced  writings  that  live  yet  and  deserve  to  live. 
But  at  the  end  of  that  period  and  for  the  remainder  of  the 
century,  nearly  all  literary  activity  in  Virginia  ceased;  the 
only  exception  to  this  statement  being  the  brief  anonymous 
literary  memorials  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the 
uprising  of  the  people  under  Nathaniel  Bacon.  Even  of 
those  writers  of  the  first  two  decades,  all  excepting  one, 
Alexander  Whitaker,  "the  Apostle  of  Virginia,"  flitted  back 
to  England  after  a  brief  residence  in  Virginia:  so  that  be 
sides  Whitaker,  the  colony  had  during  all  that  period  no 
writer  who  gave  his  name  to  her  as  being  willing  to  identify 
himself  permanently  with  her  fate,  and  to  live  and  die  in 
her  immediate  service.  This,  as  we  shall  see,  is  in  startling 
contrast  to  the  contemporaneous  record  of  New  England, 
which,  even  in  that  early  period,  had  a  great  throng  of 
writers,  nearly  all  of  whom  took  root  in  her  soil. 

New  England  Traits  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. — Did  the 
people  of  New  England  in  their  earliest  age  begin  to  pro 
duce  a  literature  ?     Who  can  doubt  it  ?     With  their  inces^ 
sant  activity  of  brain,  with  so  much  both  of  common  and 


8         A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

of  uncommon  culture  among  them,  with  intellectual  inter 
ests  so  lofty  and  strong,  with  so  many  outward  occasions  to 
stir  their  deepest  passions  into  the  same  great  currents, 
it  would  be  hard  to  explain  it  had  they  indeed  produced  no 
literature.  Moreover,  contrary  to  what  is  commonly  as 
serted  of  them,  they  were  not  without  a  literary  class.  In 
as  large  a  proportion  to  the  whole  population  as  was  then 
the  case  in  the  mother-country,  there  were  in  New  England 
many  men  trained  to  the  use  of  books,  accustomed  to  ex 
press  themselves  fluently  by  voice  and  pen,  and  not  so 
immersed  in  the  physical  tasks  of  life  as  to  be  deprived 
of  the  leisure  for  whatever  writing  they  were  prompted  to 
undertake.  It  was  a  literary  class  made  up  of  men  of 
affairs,  country-gentlemen,  teachers,  above  all  of  clergy 
men;  men  of  letters  who  did  not  depend  upon  letters  for 
their  bread,  and  who  thus  did  their  work  under  conditions 
of  intellectual  independence. 

For  the  study  of  literature,  they  turned  with  eager 
ness  to  the  ancient  classics;  read  them  freely;  quoted 
them  with  apt  facility.  Though  their  new  home  was  but 
a  province,  their  minds  were  not  provincial:  they  had  so 
stalwart  and  chaste  a  faith  in  the  ideas  which  brought  them 
to  America  as  to  think  that  wherever  those  ideas  were  put 
into  practice,  there  was  the  metropolis.  In  the  public 
expression  of  thought  they  limited  themselves  by  restraints 
which,  though  then  prevalent  in  all  parts  of  the  civilised 
world,  now  seem  shameful  and  intolerable:  the  printing- 
press  in  New  England  during  the  seventeenth  century  was 
in  chains.  The  first  was  set  up  at  Cambridge  in  1639,  under 
the  auspices  of  Harvard  College;  and  for  the  subsequent 
twenty-three  years  the  president  of  that  college  was  in  effect 
responsible  for  the  good  behaviour  of  the  terrible  machine. 
His  control  of  it  did  not  prove  sufficiently  vigilant.  The 
fears  of  the  clergy  were  excited  by  the  lenity  that  had  per 
mitted  the  escape  into  the  world  of  certain  books  which 
tended  "to  open  the  door  of  heresy";  therefore,  in  1662 


Colonial  Literature  9 

two  official  licensers  were  appointed,  without  whose  consent 
nothing  was  to  be  printed.  Even  this  did  not  make  the 
world  seem  safe;  and  two  years  afterward  the  law  was 
made  more  stringent.  Other  licensers  were  appointed ;  ex 
cepting  the  one  at  Cambridge  no  printing-press  was  to  be 
allowed  in  the  colony;  and  if  from  the  printing-press  that 
was  allowed,  anything  should  be  printed  without  the  per 
mission  of  the  licensers,  the  peccant  engine  was  to  be  for 
feited  to  the  government  and  the  printer  himself  was  to  be 
forbidden  the  exercise  of  his  profession.  But  even  the 
new  licensers  were  not  severe  enough.  In  the  leading 
colony  of  New  England  legal  restraints  upon  printing  were 
not  entirely  removed  until  about  twenty-one  years  before 
the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

The  chief  literary  disadvantages  of  New  England  were, 
that  her  writers  lived  far  from  the  great  repositories  of 
books,  and  far  from  the  central  currents  of  the  world's 
best  thinking;  that  the  lines  of  their  own  literary  activity 
were  few;  and  that,  though  they  nourished  their  minds 
upon  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  upon  the  classics  of  the 
Roman  and  Greek  literatures,  they  stood  aloof,  with  a  sort 
of  horror,  from  the  richest  and  most  exhilarating  types  of 
classic  writing  in  their  own  tongue.  In  many  ways  their 
literary  development  was  stunted  and  stiffened  by  the  nar 
rowness  of  Puritanism.  Nevertheless,  what  they  lacked 
in  symmetry  of  culture  and  in  range  of  literary  movement, 
was  something  which  the  very  integrity  of  their  natures 
was  sure  to  compel  them,  either  in  themselves  or  in  their 
posterity,  to  acquire. 

William  Bradford.-— William  Bradford,  of  the  May 
flower  and  Plymouth  Rock,  deserves  the  pre-eminence  of 
being  called  the  father  of  American  history.  After  he  had 
been  in  America  ten  years  and  had  seen  proof  of  the  per 
manent  success  of  the  heroic  movement  in  which  he  was  a 
leader,  his  mind  seems  to  have  been  possessed  by  the 


io       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

historic  significance  of  that  movement;  and  thenceforward 
for  twenty  years  he  gave  his  leisure  to  the  composition  of 
a  work  in  which  the  story  of  the  settlement  of  New  England 
should  be  told  in  a  calm,  just,  and  authentic  manner.  The 
result  was  his  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation.  There 
is  no  other  document  upon  New  England  history  that  can 
take  precedence  of  this  either  in  time  or  in  authority. 
Governor  Bradford  wrote  of  events  that  had  passed  under 
his  own  eye,  and  that  had  been  shaped  by  his  own  hand; 
and  he  had  every  qualification  of  a  trustworthy  narrator. 
His  mind  was  placid,  grave,  well-poised;  he  was  a  student 
of  many  books  and  of  many  languages;  and  being  thus 
developed  both  by  letters  and  by  experience,  he  was  able 
to  tell  well  the  truth  of  history  as  it  had  unfolded  itself 
during  his  own  strenuous  and  benignant  career.  His  his 
tory  is  an  orderly,  lucid,  and  most  instructive  work ;  it  con 
tains  many  tokens  of  its  author's  appreciation  of  the  nature 
and  requirements  of  historical  writing;  and  though  so  re 
cently — 1855 — published  in  a  perfect  form,  it  must  hence 
forth  take  its  true  place  at  the  head  of  American  historical 
literature,  and  win  for  its  author  the  patristic  dignity  that 
we  have  ascribed  to  him. 

John  Winthrop. — In  the  early  spring  of  1630,  a  fleet  of 
four  vessels  sailed  out  into  the  sea  from  a  beautiful  harbour 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  their  prows  pointed  westward.  On 
board  that  fleet  were  the  greatest  company  of  wealthy  and 
cultivated  persons  that  have  ever  emigrated  in  any  one 
voyage  from  England  to  America.  They  were  prosperous 
English  Puritans.  Foremost  among  them  in  intellectual 
power  and  in  weight  of  character  was  John  Winthrop, 
already  chosen  Governor  of  the  Massachusetts  .Company, 
and  qualified  by  every  personal  trait  to  be  the  conductor 
and  the  statesman  of  the  new  Puritan  colony  of  Massa 
chusetts  Bay.  Immediately  upon  going  on  board  ship  he 
began  a  piece  of  writing,  which  he  continued  to  work  at 


Colonial  Literature  n 

not  only  during  the  rest  of  the  voyage  but  during  the  rest 
of  his  life,  and  which  is  a  treasure  beyond  price  among  our 
early  historic  memorials, — The  History  of  New  England. 
His  plan  was  to  jot  down  significant  experiences  in  the  daily 
life  of  his  company,  not  only  while  at  sea  but  after  their 
arrival  in  America.  For  almost  twenty  years  the  story 
went  forward,  from  1630  until  a  few  weeks  before  the 
writer's  death  in  1649.  It  is  quite  evident  that  Winthrop 
wrote  what  he  did  with  the  full  purpose  of  having  it  pub 
lished  as  a  history;  but  he  wrote  it  amid  the  hurry  and 
weariness  of  his  unloitering  life,  with  no  anxiety  about  style, 
with  no  other  purpose  than  to  tell  the  truth  in  plain  and 
honest  fashion.  There  is  one  portion  of  this  History  that 
has  acquired  great  celebrity:  it  is  the  one  embodying 
Winthrop's  speech,  in  1645,  in  the  general  court,  on  his 
being  acquitted  of  the  charge  of  having  exceeded  his  au 
thority  as  deputy-governor.  One  passage  of  it,  containing 
Winthrop's  statement  of  the  nature  of  liberty,  is  of  pre 
eminent  merit,  worthy  of  being  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
weightiest  and  most  magnanimous  sentences  of  John  Locke 
or  Algernon  Sidney.  A  distinguished  American  publicist 
has  declared  that  this  is  the  best  definition  of  liberty  in  the 
English  language,  and  that  in  comparison  with  it  what 
Blackstone  says  about  liberty  seems  puerile. 1 

1  "There  is  a  twofold  liberty,  natural,  and  civil  or  federal.  The 
first  is  common  to  man  with  beasts  and  other  creatures.  By  this, 
man,  as  he  stands  in  relation  to  man  simply,  hath  liberty  to  do  what 
he  lists;  it  is  a  liberty  to  evil  as  well  as  to  good.  This  liberty  is  in 
compatible  and  inconsistent  with  authority,  and  cannot  endure  the 
least  restraint  of  the  most  just  authority.  The  exercise  and  main 
taining  of  this  liberty  makes  men  grow  more  evil,  and  in  time  to  be 
worse  than  brute  beasts.  This  is  that  great  enemy  of  truth  and  peace, 
that  wild  beast,  which  all  the  ordinances  of  God  are  bent  against, 
to  restrain  and  subdue  it.  The  other  kind  of  liberty  I  call  civil  or 
federal;  it  may  also  be  termed  moral,  in  reference  to  the  covenant 
between  God  and  man,  in  the  moral  law,  and  the  politic  covenants 
and  constitutions  amongst  men  themselves.  This  liberty  is  the 
proper  end  and  object  of  authority,  and  cannot  subsist  without  it; 


12       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Descriptions  of  Nature. — A  delightful  group  of  writings 
belonging  to  our  earliest  age  is  made  up  of  those  which 
preserve  for  us,  in  the  very  words  of  the  men  themselves, 
the  curiosity,  the  awe,  the  bewilderment,  the  fresh  delight, 
with  which  the  American  Fathers  came  face  to  face  for 
the  first  time  with  the  various  forms  of  nature  and  of  life 
in  the  New  World.  Examples  of  this  class  of  writings  were 
produced  by  the  early  men  of  Virginia;  and  among  the 
founders  of  New  England  there  was  no  lack  of  the  same 
sensitiveness  to  the  vast,  picturesque,  and  novel  aspects  of 
nature  which  they  encountered  upon  the  sea  and  the  land, 
in  their  first  journeys  hither.  The  evidence  of  this  fact  is 
scattered  thick  through  all  their  writings,  in  letters,  ser 
mons,  histories,  poems;  while  there  remain  several  books, 
written  by  them  immediately  after  their  arrival  here,  de 
scribing  in  the  first  glow  of  elated  feeling  the  vision  that 
unfolded  itself  before  them  of  the  new  realms  of  existence 
upon  which  they  were  entering. 

Theological  Writers. — Without  doubt,  the  sermons  pro 
duced  in  New  England  during  the  colonial  times,  and 
especially  during  the  seventeenth  century,  are  the  most 
authentic  and  characteristic  revelations  of  the  mind  of  New 
England  for  all  that  wonderful  epoch.  The  theological 
and  religious  writings  of  early  New  England  may  not  now 
be  readable;  but  they  are  certainly  not  despicable.  They 
represent  an  enormous  amount  of  subtile,  sustained,  and 
sturdy  brain-power.  They  are,  of  course,  grave,  dry, 
abstruse,  dreadful;  to  our  debilitated  attentions  they  are 
hard  to  follow;  in  style  they  are  often  uncouth  and 

and  it  is  a  liberty  to  that  only  which  is  good,  just,  and  honest.  This 
liberty  you  are  to  stand  for,  with  the  hazard  not  only  of  your  goods 
but  of  your  lives,  if  need  be.  Whatsoever  crosseth  this,  is  not 
authority,  but  a  distemper  thereof.  This  liberty  is  maintained  and 
exercised  in  a  way  of  subjection  to  authority.  ...  So  shall  your 
liberties  be  preserved  in  upholding  the  honour  and  power  of  author 
ity  amongst  you." — History  of  New  England,  ii.,  279-282. 


Colonial  Literature  13 

ponderous;  they  are  technical  in  the  extreme;  they  are 
devoted  to  a  theology  that  yet  lingers  in  the  memory  of 
mankind  only  through  certain  shells  of  words  long  since 
emptied  of  their  original  meaning.  Nevertheless,  these 
writings  are  monuments  of  vast  learning,  and  of  a  stu 
pendous  intellectual  energy  both  in  the  men  who  produced 
them  and  in  the  men  who  listened  to  them.  Of  course  they 
can  never  be  recalled  to  any  vital  human  interest.  They 
have  long  since  done  their  work  in  moving  the  minds  of 
men.  Few  of  them  can  be  cited  as  literature.  In  the 
mass,  they  can  only  be  labelled  by  the  antiquarians  and 
laid  away  upon  shelves  to  be  looked  at  occasionally  as 
curiosities  of  verbal  expression,  and  as  relics  of  an  in 
tellectual  condition  gone  for  ever.  They  were  conceived 
by  noble  minds;  they  are  themselves  noble.  They  are 
superior  to  our  jests.  We  may  deride  them,  if  we  will; 
but  they  are  not  derided. 

Of  all  the  great  preachers  who  came  to  New  England 
in  our  first  age,  there  were  three  who,  according  to  the 
universal  opinion  of  their  contemporaries,  towered  above 
all  others,  —  Thomas  Hooker,  Thomas  Shepard,  John 
Cotton.  These  three  could  be  compared  with  one  another ; 
but  with  them  could  be  compared  no  one  else.  They  stood 
apart,  above  rivalry,  above  envy.  In  personal  traits  they 
differed;  they  were  alike  in  bold  and  energetic  thinking, 
in  massiveness  of  erudition,  in  a  certain  overpowering 
personal  persuasiveness,  in  the  gift  of  fascinating  and 
resistless  pulpit  oratory. 

"The  Simple  Cobbler  of  Agawam." — Soon  after  his 
arrival  in  Massachusetts,  Nathaniel  Ward  became  minister 
to  a  raw  settlement  of  Puritans  at  Agawam,  the  beautiful 
Indian  name  of  that  district,  afterward  foolishly  exchanged 
for  Ipswich.  Early  in  1645,  he  commenced  writing  the 
remarkable  book,  The  Simple  Cobbler  of  Agawam,  which 
will  keep  for  him  a  perpetual  place  in  early  American 


14       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

literature.  It  had  the  good  fortune  to  fit  the  times  and 
the  passions  of  men;  it  was  caught  up  into  instant  notice, 
and  ran  through  four  editions  within  the  first  year.  The 
Simple  Cobbler  of  Agawam  may  be  described  as  a  prose 
satire  upon  what  seemed  to  the  author  to  be  the  frightful 
license  of  new  opinions  in  his  time,  both  in  New  England 
and  at  home;  upon  the  frivolity  of  women  and  the  long 
hair  of  men;  and  finally  upon  the  raging  storm  of  English 
politics,  in  the  strife  then  going  forward  between  sects, 
parties,  Parliament,  and  King.  It  is  a  tremendous  parti 
san  pamphlet.  After  all,  the  one  great  trait  in  this  book 
which  must  be  to  us  the  most  welcome,  is  its  superiority 
to  the  hesitant,  imitative,  and  creeping  manner  that  is  the 
sure  sign  of  a  provincial  literature.  The  first  accents  of 
literary  speech  in  the  American  forests  seem  not  to  have 
been  provincial,  but  free,  fearless,  natural.  Our  earliest 
writers,  at  any  rate,  wrote  the  English  language  spon 
taneously,  forcefully,  like  honest  men.  We  shall  have  to 
search  in  some  later  period  of  our  intellectual  history  to 
find,  if  at  all,  a  race  of  literary  snobs  and  imitators — 
writers  who  in  their  thin  and  timid  ideas,  their  nerveless 
diction,  and  their  slavish  simulation  of  the  supposed  lit 
erary  accent  of  the  mother-country,  make  confession  of 
the  inborn  weakness  and  beggarliness  of  literary  provincials. 

Roger  Williams. — From  his  early  manhood  even  down 
to  his  late  old  age,  Roger  Williams  stands  in  New  England 
a  mighty  and  benignant  form,  always  pleading  for  some 
magnanimous  idea,  some  tender  charity,  the  rectification 
of  some  wrong,  the  exercise  of  some  sort  of  forbearance 
toward  men's  bodies  or  souls.  He  became  an  uncompro 
mising  Separatist.  By  the  spectacle  of  the  white  men 
helping  themselves  freely  to  the  lands  of  the  red  men,  he 
became  an  assailant  of  the  validity,  in  that  particular,  of 
the  New  England  charters.  Roger  Williams  also  held  that 
it  was  a  shocking  thing — one  of  the  abominations  of  the 


Colonial  Literature  15 

age — for  men  who  did  not  even  pretend  to  have  religion  in 
their  hearts,  to  be  muttering  publicly  the  words  of  religion 
with  their  mouths;  and  that  such  persons  ought  not  to  be 
called  on  to  perform  any  acts  of  worship,  even  the  taking 
of  an  oath.  Finally,  he  held  another  doctrine,  that  the 
power  of  the  civil  magistrate  "extends  only  to  the  bodies 
and  goods  and  outward  state  of  men,"  and  not  at  all  to 
their  inward  state,  their  consciences,  their  opinions.  For 
these  four  crimes,  particularly  mentioned  by  Governor 
Haynes  in  pronouncing  sentence  upon  him,  Massachu 
setts  deemed  it  unsafe  to  permit  such  a  nefarious 
being  as  Roger  Williams  to  abide  anywhere  within  her 
borders. 

The  illustrious  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines  had 
been  in  session  since  July,  1643.  Already  the  Presbyterians 
in  it  had  come  to  hard  blows  with  the  Congregationalists 
in  it,  with  respect  to  the  form  of  church  government  to 
be  erected  in  England  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Episcopacy. 
On  that  subject  Roger  Williams  had  a  very  distinct  opinion. 
While  some  were  for  having  the  new  national  church  of 
this  pattern,  and  others  were  for  having  it  of  that,  Roger 
Williams  boldly  stepped  two  or  three  centuries  ahead  of 
his  age,  and  affirmed  that  there  should  be  no  national 
church  at  all.  Putting  his  argument  into  the  differential 
form  of  mere  questions,  he  published,  in  1644,  what  he 
called  Queries  of  Highest  Consideration.  This,  of  course, 
was  stark  and  dreadful  heresy;  but  it  was  heresy  for 
which  Roger  Williams  had  already  suffered  loss  and  pain, 
and  was  prepared  to  suffer  more.  Above  all,  his  nature 
had  become  absolutely  clear  in  its  adjustment  of  certain 
grand  ideas,  of  which  the  chief  was  liberty  of  soul.  On 
behalf  of  that  idea,  having  now  an  opportunity  to  free 
his  mind,  he  resolved  to  do  so,  keeping  nothing  back; 
and  accordingly,  almost  upon  the  heels  of  the  little  book 
that  has  just  been  mentioned,  he  sent  out  another — not  a 
little  one;  a  book  of  strong,  limpid,  and  passionate  argu- 


1 6       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

ment,  glorious  for  its  intuitions  of  the  world's  coming 
wisdom,  and  in  its  very  title  flinging  out  defiantly  a  chal 
lenge  to  all  comers.  He  called  it  The  Bloody  Tenet  of 
Persecution  for  Cause  of  Conscience.  His  book  reached 
in  due  time  the  library  of  John  Cotton,  and  stirred  him 
up  to  make  a  reply,  which  bore  a  title  reverberating  that 
given  by  Roger  Williams  to  his  book:  The  Bloody  Tenet 
washed  and  made  white  in  the  Blood  of  the  Lamb.  Cotton's 
book  quickly  found  Roger  Williams,  at  his  home  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  of  course  aroused  him  to  write  a  rejoinder. 
Its  title  is  a  reiteration  of  that  given  to  his  former  work, 
and  is  likewise  a  characteristic  retort  upon  the  modification 
made  of  it  by  his  antagonist:  The  Bloody  Tenet  yet  more 
Bloody,  by  Mr.  Cotton's  Endeavour  to  wash  it  white  in  the 
Blood  of  the  Lamb.  This  book  is  the  most  powerful  of  the 
writings  of  Roger  Williams.  There  are  three  principal 
matters  argued  in  it, — the  nature  of  persecution,  the 
limits  of  the  power  of  the  civil  sword,  and  the  tolerance 
already  granted  by  Parliament. 

With  Roger  Williams,  the  mood  for  composition  seems 
to  have  come  in  gusts.  His  writings  are  numerous;  but 
they  were  produced  spasmodically  and  in  clusters,  amid 
long  spaces  of  silence.  He  is  known  to  have  written  two  or 
three  works  which  were  never  printed  at  all,  and  which 
are  now  lost.  In  1652,  he  published,  in  addition  to  his 
rejoinder  to  John  Cotton,  two  small  treatises.  From  that 
time,  no  book  of  his  was  given  to  the  press  until  the  year 
1676,  when  he  published  at  Boston  a  quarto  volume  of 
nearly  350  pages,  embodying  his  own  report  of  a  series 
of  stormy  public  debates,  which  he  had  held  in  Rhode 
Island,  not  long  before,  with  certain  robust  advocates  of 
Quakerism.  This  book  bears  a  punning  title,  George  Fox 
Digged  out  of  his  Burrows.  Besides  those  of  his  writings 
that  were  intended  for  books,  there  are  many  in  the  form 
of  letters,  some  addressed  to  the  public,  most  of  them  to  his 
personal  friends.  In  these  letters,  which  cover  his  whole 


Colonial  Literature  17 

life  from  youth  to  old  age,  we  seem  to  get  very  near  to  the 
man  himself. 

Puritanism  and  Poetry. — A  happy  surprise  awaits  those 
who  come  to  the  study  of  the  early  literature  of  New 
England  with  the  expectation  of  finding  it  altogether  arid 
in  sentiment,  or  void  of  the  spirit  and  aroma  of  poetry. 
The  New  Englander  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  indeed 
a  typical  Puritan;  and  it  will  hardly  be  said  that  any 
typical  Puritan  of  that  century  was  a  poetical  personage. 
In  proportion  to  his  devotion  to  the  ideas  that  won  for 
him  the  derisive  honour  of  his  name,  was  he  at  war  with 
nearly  every  form  of  the  beautiful.  He  himself  believed 
that  there  was  an  inappeasable  feud  between  religion  and 
art;  and  hence  the  duty  of  suppressing  art  was  bound  up 
in  his  soul  with  the  master-purpose  of  promoting  religion. 
Hence,  very  naturally,  he  turned  away  likewise  from  certain 
great  and  splendid  types  of  literature, — from  the  drama, 
from  the  playful  and  sensuous  verse  of  Chaucer  and  his 
innumerable  sons,  from  the  secular  prose  writings  of  his 
contemporaries,  and  from  all  forms  of  modern  lyric  verse 
except  the  Calvinistic  hymn.  Nevertheless,  the  Puritan 
did  not  succeed  in  eradicating  poetry  from  his  nature. 
Of  course,  poetry  was  planted  there  too  deep  even  for  his 
theological  grub-hooks  to  root  it  out.  Though  denied  ex 
pression  in  one  way,  the  poetry  that  was  in  him  forced 
itself  into  utterance  in  another.  If  his  theology  drove 
poetry  out  of  many  forms  in  which  it  had  been  used  to 
reside,  poetry  itself  practised  a  noble  revenge  by  taking 
up  its  abode  in  his  theology.  Though  he  stamped  his  foot 
in  horror  and  scorn  upon  many  exquisite  and  delicious  types 
of  literary  art,  yet  the  idea  that  filled  and  thrilled  his  soul 
was  one  in  every  way  sublime,  immense,  imaginative,  poetic. 
How  resplendent  and  superb  was  the  poetry  that  lay  at  the 
heart  of  Puritanism,  was  seen  by  the  sightless  eyes  of  John 
Milton,  whose  great  epic  is  indeed  the  epic  of  Puritanism. 


1 8       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Turning  to  Puritanism  as  it  existed  in  New  England, 
we  may  perhaps  imagine  it  as  solemnly  declining  the  visits 
of  the  Muses  of  poetry,  sending  out  to  them  the  blunt  but 
honest  message — "Otherwise  engaged."  Nothing  could  be 
further  from  the  truth.  It  is  an  extraordinary  fact  about 
these  grave  and  substantial  men  of  New  England,  espe 
cially  during  our  earliest  literary  age,  that  they  all  had  a 
lurking  propensity  to  write  what  they  sincerely  believed 
to  be  poetry, — and  this,  in  most  cases,  in  unconscious 
defiance  of  the  edicts  of  nature  and  of  a  predetermining 
Providence.  It  is  impressive  to  note,  as  we  inspect  our 
first  period,  that  neither  advanced  age,  nor  high  office, 
nor  mental  unfitness,  nor  previous  condition  of  respect 
ability,  was  sufficient  to  protect  any  one  from  the  poetic 
vice.  Here  and  there,  even  a  town-clerk,  placing  on  record 
the  deeply  prosaic  proceedings  of  the  selectmen,  would 
adorn  them  in  the  sacred  costume  of  poetry.  Remember 
ing  their  unfriendly  attitude  towards  art  in  general,  this 
universal  mania  of  theirs  for  some  forms  of  the  poetic  art 
— this  unrestrained  proclivity  toward  the  "lust  of  versi 
fication" — must  seem  to  us  an  odd  psychological  freak. 
Or,  shall  we  rather  say  that  it  was  not  a  freak  at  all,  but 
a  normal  effort  of  nature,  which,  being  unduly  repressed 
in  one  direction,  is  accustomed  to  burst  over  all  barriers 
in  another?  As  respects  the  poetry  which  was  perpetrated 
by  our  ancestors,  it  must  be  mentioned  that  a  benignant 
Providence  has  its  own  methods  of  protecting  the  human 
family  from  intolerable  misfortune;  and  that  the  most  of 
this  poetry  has  perished. 

Anne  Bradstreet. — There  was,  however,  belonging  to 
this  primal  literary  period,  one  poet  who,  in  some  worthy 
sense,  found  in  poetry  a  vocation.  The  first  professional 
poet  of  New  England  was  a  woman.  In  the  year  1650 
there  was  published,  in  London,  a  book  of  poems  written 
by  a  gifted  young  woman  of  the  New  England  wilderness, 


Colonial  Literature  19 

Anne  Bradstreet  by  name.  She  was  born  in  England,  in 
1612.  She  was  the  laborious  wife  of  a  New  England 
farmer,  the  mother  of  eight  children,  and  herself  from 
childhood  of  a  delicate  constitution.  The  most  of  her 
poems  were  produced  between  1630  and  1642,  that  is, 
before  she  was  thirty  years  old;  and  during  these  years 
she  had  neither  leisure,  nor  elegant  surroundings,  nor 
freedom  from  anxious  thoughts,  nor  even  abounding  health. 
Somehow,  during  her  busy  lifetime,  she  contrived  to  put 
upon  record  compositions  numerous  enough  to  fill  a  royal 
octavo  volume  of  400  pages, — compositions  which  entice 
and  reward  our  reading  of  them,  two  hundred  years  after 
she  lived. 

II.       SECOND  PERIOD  (1676-1765) 

The  Two  Periods. — I  have  taken  the  year  1676  as  the 
year  of  partition  between  the  two  periods  into  which  our 
colonial  age  seems  to  fall.  Before  1676,  the  new  civili 
sation  in  America  was  principally  in  the  hands  of  Americans 
born  in  England;  after  1676,  it  was  principally  in  the 
hands  of  Americans  born  in  America,  and  the  subjects 
of  such  training  as  was  to  be  had  here.  Our  first  colonial 
period,  therefore,  transmits  to  us  a  body  of  writings 
produced  by  immigrant  Americans;  preserving  for  us 
the  ideas,  the  moods,  the  efforts,  the  very  phrases  of  the 
men  who  founded  the  American  nation;  representing  to 
us,  also,  the  earliest  literary  results  flowing  from  the  re 
actions  of  life  in  the  New  World  upon  an  intellectual  culture 
formed  in  the  Old  World.  Our  second  colonial  period 
does  more:  it  transmits  to  us  a  body  of  writings,  pro 
duced  in  the  main  by  the  American  children  of  those 
immigrants,  and  representing  the  earliest  literary  results 
flowing  from  the  reactions  of  life  in  the  New  World  upon 
an  intellectual  culture  that  was  itself  formed  in  the  New 
World, 


20       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Our  first  colonial  period,  just  seventy  years  long,  we 
have  now  briefly  examined.  For  my  part,  I  have  no 
apology  to  make  for  it:  I  think  it  needs  none.  It  was 
a  period  principally  engaged  in  other  tasks  than  the  tasks 
of  the  pen;  it  laid,  quietly  and  well,  the  foundation  of  a 
new  social  structure  that  was  to  cover  a  hemisphere,  was 
to  give  shelter  and  comfort  to  myriads  of  the  human  race, 
was  to  endure  to  centuries  far  beyond  the  gropings  of 
our  guesswork.  Had  it  done  that  deed  alone,  and  left 
no  written  word  at  all,  not  any  man  since  then  could  have 
wondered;  still  less  could  any  man  have  flung  at  it  the 
reproach  of  intellectual  lethargy  or  neglect.  But  if,  be 
sides  what  it  did  in  the  founding  of  a  new  commonwealth, 
we  consider  what  it  also  did  in  the  founding  of  a  new 
literature — the  muchness  of  that  special  work,  the  down 
right  merit  of  it — we  shall  find  it  hard  to  withhold  from 
that  period  the  homage  of  our  admiration. 

From  the  year  1676,  when  our  first  colonial  period 
ends,  there  stretches  onward  a  space  of  just  eighty-nine 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  the  American  colonies  under 
went  a  swift  and  portentous  change, — losing,  all  at  once, 
their  colonial  content,  and  passing  suddenly  into  the  ear 
lier  and  the  intellectual  stage  of  their  struggle  for  inde 
pendence.  This  space  of  eighty-nine  years  forms,  of 
course,  our  second  colonial  period. 

New  England  Verse-Writers. — Urian  Oakes,  born  in 
1631,  was  reared  in  the  woods  of  Concord.  The  splendid 
literary  capacity  of  this  early  American — this  product  of 
our  pioneer  and  autochthonous  culture — is  seen  in  this: 
as  his  sermons  are  among  the  noblest  specimens  of  prose 
to  be  met  with,  in  that  class  of  writings,  during  the  colonial 
time,  so  the  one  example  that  is  left  to  us  of  his  verse 
reaches  the  highest  point  touched  by  American  poetry 
during  the  same  era.  The  poem  thus  referred  to  is  an 
elegy  upon  the  death  of  a  man  to  whom  the  poet  seems 


Colonial  Literature  21 

to  have  been  bound  by  the  tenderest  friendship, — a  poem 
in  fifty- two  six-lined  stanzas;  not  without  some  mechan 
ical  defects ;  blurred  also  by  some  patches  of  the  prevailing 
theological  jargon;  yet,  upon  the  w^hole,  affluent,  stately, 
pathetic ;  beautiful  and  strong  with  the  beauty  and  strength 
of  true  imaginative  vision. 

In  contemporaneous  renown,  far  above  all  other  verse- 
writers  of  the  colonial  time,  was  Michael  Wigglesworth, 
the  explicit  and  unshrinking  rhymer  of  the  Five  Points  of 
Calvinism;  a  poet  who  so  perfectly  uttered  in  verse  the 
religious  faith  and  emotion  of  Puritan  New  England  that, 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  his  writings  had  universal 
diffusion  there,  and  a  popular  influence  only  inferior  to 
that  of  the  Bible  and  the  Shorter  Catechism.  No  one 
holding  a  different  theology  from  that  held  by  Michael 
Wigglesworth  can  do  justice  to  him  as  a  poet,  without 
exercising  the  utmost  intellectual  catholicity.  His  verse 
is  quite  lacking  in  art;  its  ordinary  form  being  a  crude, 
swinging  ballad-measure,  with  a  sort  of  cheap  melody,  a 
shrill,  reverberating  clatter,  that  would  instantly  catch  and 
please  the  popular  ear,  at  that  time  deaf  to  daintier  and 
more  subtile  effects  in  poetry.  In  the  multitude  of  his 
verses,  Michael  Wigglesworth  surpasses  all  other  poets  of 
the  colonial  time,  excepting  Anne  Bradstreet.  Besides 
numerous  minor  poems,  he  is  the  author  of  three  poetical 
works  of  considerable  length.  One  of  these,  God's  Con 
troversy  with  New  England,  was  "written  in  the  time  of 
the  great  drought,"  1662.  The  argument  of  the  poem 
is  this:  "New  England  planted,  prospered,  declining, 
threatened,  punished."  The  poet  holds  the  opinion,  com 
mon  enough  in  his  day,  that  before  the  arrival  of  the 
English  in  America,  this  continent  had  been  the  choice 
and  peculiar  residence  of  the  Devil  and  his  angels.  An 
other  large  poem  of  Wigglesworth's  is  Meat  out  of  the 
Eater;  or,  Meditations  concerning  the  Necessity,  End,  and 
Usefulness  of  Afflictions  unto  God's  Children,  all  tending 


22       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

to  prepare  them  for  and  comfort  them  under  the  Cross.  Here 
we  have  simply  the  Christian  doctrine  of  comfort  in  sorrow, 
translated  into  metrical  jingles.  It  was  first  published, 
probably,  in  1669;  ten  years  afterward,  it  had  passed 
through  at  least  four  editions;  and  during  the  entire 
colonial  age,  it  was  a  much-read  manual  of  solace  in 
affliction.  But  the  masterpiece  of  Michael  Wigglesworth's 
genius,  and  his  most  delectable  gift  to  an  admiring  public, 
was  that  blazing  and  sulphurous  poem,  The  Day  of  Doom;  or, 
A  poetical  Description  of  the  great  and  last  Judgment.  This 
great  poem,  which,  with  entire  unconsciousness,  attrib 
utes  to  the  Divine  Being  a  character  the  most  execrable 
and  loathsome  to  be  met  with,  perhaps,  in  any  litera 
ture,  Christian  or  pagan,  had  for  a  hundred  years  a  pop 
ularity  far  exceeding  that  of  any  other  work,  in  prose  or 
verse,  produced  in  America  before  the  Revolution.  The 
eighteen  hundred  copies  of  the  first  edition  were  sold 
within  a  single  year;  which  implies  the  purchase  of  a 
copy  of  The  Day  of  Doom  by  at  least  every  thirty-fifth 
person  then  in  New  England, — an  example  of  the  com 
mercial  success  of  a  book  never  afterward  equalled  in  this 
country.  Since  that  time,  the  book  has  been  repeatedly 
published;  at  least  once  in  England,  and  at  least  eight 
times  in  America — the  last  time  being  in  1867. 

The  Dynasty  of  the  Mathers. — At  the  time  of  his  arrival 
in  Boston — August,  1635 — Richard  Mather  was  thirty-nine 
years  of  age;  a  man  of  extensive  and  precise  learning  in 
the  classics,  in  the  Scriptures,  and  in  divinity;  already  a 
famous  preacher.  This  man,  "the  progenitor  of  all  the 
Mathers  in  New  England,"  and  the  first  of  a  line  of  great 
preachers  and  great  men  of  letters  that  continued  to  hold 
sway  there  through  the  entire  colonial  era,  had  in  himself 
the  chief  traits  that  distinguished  his  family  through  so 
long  a  period; — great  physical  endurance,  a  voracious 
appetite  for  the  reading  of  books,  an  alarming  propensity 


Colonial  Literature  23 

to  the  writing  of  books,  a  love  of  political  leadership  in 
church  and  state,  the  faculty  of  personal  conspicuousness, 
finally,  the  homiletic  gift.  His  numerous  writings  were,  of 
course,  according  to  the  demand  of  his  time  and  neigh 
bourhood  ; — sermons,  a  catechism,  a  treatise  on  justification, 
public  letters  upon  church  government,  several  controver 
sial  documents,  the  preface  to  the  Old  Bay  Psalm  Book,  and 
many  of  the  marvels  of  metrical  expression  to  be  viewed 
in  the  body  of  that  work. 

Of  the  six  sons  of  Richard  Mather,  four  became  famous 
preachers,  two  of  them  in  Ireland  and  in  England,  other 
two  in  New  England;  the  greatest  of  them  all  being  the 
youngest,  born  at  Dorchester,  June  21,  1639,  and  at  his 
birth  adorned  with  the  name  of  Increase,  in  graceful 
recognition  of  "the  increase  of  every  sort,  wherewith  God 
favoured  the  country  about  the  time  of  his  nativity."  Even 
in  childhood  he  began  to  display  the  strong  and  eager 
traits  that  gave  distinction  and  power  to  his  whole  life, 
and  that  bore  him  impetuously  through  the  warfare  of 
eighty-four  mortal  years..  In  1657,  on  his  eighteenth  birth 
day,  he  preached  in  his  father's  pulpit  his  first  sermon. 
From  1 66 1  to  1664  he  divided  his  services  between  his 
father's  church  at  Dorchester  and  the  North  Church  of  Bos 
ton.  At  last,  in  1664,  he  consented  to  be  made  minister  of 
the  latter  church,  which,  thenceforward,  to  the  end  of  his 
own  life,  and  to  the  end  of  the  life  of  his  more  famous 
son,  continued  to  be  the  tower  and  the  stronghold  of  the 
Mathers  in  America.  Here,  then,  was  a  person,  born  in 
America,  bred  in  America, — a  clean  specimen  of  what  Amer 
ica  could  do  for  itself  in  the  way  of  keeping  up  the  brave 
stock  of  its  first  imported  citizens.  As  to  learning,  he 
even  exceeded  all  other  New  Englanders  of  the  colonial 
time,  except  his  own  son,  Cotton.  His  power  as  a  pulpit- 
orator  was  very  great.  It  was  a  common  saying  of  his 
contemporaries,  that  Increase  Mather  was  "a  complete 
preacher."  From  a  literary  point  of  view,  his  writings 


24       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

certainly  have  considerable  merit.  The  publications  of 
Increase  Mather  defy  mention,  except  in  the  form  of  a 
catalogue.  From  the  year  1669,  when  he  had  reached 
the  age  of  thirty,  until  the  year  1723,  when  he  died,  hardly 
a  twelvemonth  was  permitted  to  pass  in  which  he  did 
not  solicit  the  public  attention  through  the  press.  An 
authentic  list  of  his  works  would  include  at  least  ninety- 
two  titles.  Of  all  the  great  host  of  Increase  Mather's 
publications,  perhaps  only  one  can  be  said  to  have  still 
any  power  of  walking  alive  on  the  earth, — the  book  com 
monly  known  by  a  name  not  given  to  it  by  the  author, 
Remarkable  Providences.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the 
conception  of  the  book  is  thoroughly  scientific;  for  it  is 
to  prove  by  induction  the  actual  presence  of  supernatural 
forces  in  the  world.  Its  chief  defect,  of  course,  is  its 
lack  of  all  cross-examination  of  the  witnesses,  and  of  all 
critical  inspection  of  their  testimony,  together  with  a 
palpable  eagerness  on  the  author's  part  to  welcome,  from 
any  quarter  of  the  earth  or  sea  or  sky,  any  messenger 
whatever  who  may  be  seen  hurrying  toward  Boston  with 
his  mouth  full  of  marvels. 

In  the  intellectual  distinction  of  the  Mather  family, 
there  seemed  to  be,  for  at  least  three  generations,  a  cer 
tain  cumulative  felicity.  The  general  acknowledgment  of 
this  fact  is  recorded  in  an  old  epitaph,  composed  for  the 
founder  of  the  illustrious  tribe: 

Under  this  stone  lies  Richard  Mather, 
Who  had  a  son  greater  than  his  father, 
And  eke  a  grandson  greater  than  either. 

This  overtopping  grandson  was,  of  course,  none  other 
than  Cotton  Mather,  the  literary  behemoth  of  New  Eng 
land  in  our  colonial  era;  the  man  whose  fame  as  a  writer 
surpasses,  in  later  times  and  especially  in  foreign  coun 
tries,  that  of  any  other  pre-Revolutionary  American,  ex 
cepting  Jonathan  Edwards  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  The 


Colonial  Literature  25 

most  famous  book  produced  by  him — the  most  famous 
book,  likewise,  produced  by  any  American  during  the 
colonial  time — is  Magnolia  Christi  Americana;  or,  The 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England,  from  its  first  Planting, 
in  the  Year  1620,  unto  the  Year  of  our  Lord  1698.  The 
Magnolia  is,  indeed,  what  the  author  called  it,  "a  bulky 
thing," — the  two  volumes  of  the  latest  edition  having 
upwards  of  thirteen  hundred  pages.  The  Magnolia  has 
great  merits;  it  has,  also,  fatal  defects.  In  its  mighty  chaos 
of  fables  and  blunders  and  misrepresentations,  are  of 
course  lodged  many  single  facts  of  the  utmost  value,  per 
sonal  reminiscences,  social  gossip,  snatches  of  conversations, 
touches  of  description,  traits  of  character  and  life,  that 
can  be  found  nowhere  else,  and  that  help  us  to  paint  for 
ourselves  some  living  picture  of  the  great  men  and  the  great 
days  of  early  New  England;  yet  herein,  also,  history  and 
fiction  are  so  jumbled  and  shuffled  together  that  it  is 
never  possible  to  tell,  without  other  help  than  the  author's, 
just  where  the  fiction  ends  and  the  history  begins.  On 
no  disputed  question  of  fact  is  the  unaided  testimony 
of  Cotton  Mather  of  much  weight.  The  true  place  of 
Cotton  Mather  in  our  literary  history  is  indicated  when 
we  say  that  he  was  the  last,  the  most  vigorous,  and,  there 
fore,  the  most  disagreeable  representative  of  the  Fantastic 
School  in  literature;  and  that  he  prolonged  in  New  England 
the  methods  of  that  school  even  after  his  most  cultivated 
contemporaries  there  had  outgrown  them,  and  had  come 
to  dislike  them.  The  expulsion  of  the  beautiful  from 
thought,  from  sentiment,  from  language;  a  lawless  and  a 
merciless  fury  for  the  odd,  the  disorderly,  the  grotesque, 
the  violent;  strained  analogies,  unexpected  images,  ped 
antries,  indelicacies,  freaks  of  allusion,  monstrosities  of 
phrase; — these  are  the  traits  of  Cotton  Mather's  writing, 
even  as  they  are  the  traits  common  to  that  perverse  and 
detestable  literary  mood  that  held  sway  in  different  coun 
tries  of  Christendom  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 


26       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

centuries.     Its  birthplace  was  Italy;    New  England  was 
its  grave ;   Cotton  Mather  was  its  last  great  apostle. 

Samuel  Mather,  the  son  of  Cotton  Mather,  was  born 
in  1706.  In  him,  evidently,  the  ancestral  fire  had  become 
almost  extinct.  He  had  abundant  learning;  was  extremely 
industrious ;  published  many  things ;  but  there  was  not  in 
them,  as  there  was  not  in  him,  the  victorious  energy  of 
an  original  mind,  or  even  the  winning  felicity  of  an  imita 
tive  one.  He  was  a  sturdy  and  a  worthy  man.  He  left 
no  successor  to  continue  the  once-splendid  dynasty  of  his 
tribe.  He  was  the  last,  and  the  least,  of  the  Mathers. 

The  Laity  in  New  England  Literature. — In  the  history 
of  literature  in  New  England  during  the  colonial  time, 
one  fact  stands  out  above  all  others, — the  intellectual 
leadership  of  the  clergy,  and  that,  too,  among  a  laity 
neither  ignorant  nor  weak.  This  leadership  was  in  every 
sense  honourable,  both  for  the  leaders  and  the  led.  It  was 
not  due  alone  to  the  high  authority  of  the  clerical  office 
in  New  England;  it  was  due  still  more  to  the  personal 
greatness  of  the  men  who  filled  that  office,  and  who  them 
selves  made  the  office  great.  They  were  intellectual  leaders 
because  they  deserved  to  be;  for,  living  among  a  well- 
educated  and  high-spirited  people,  they  knew  more,  were 
wiser,  were  abler,  than  all  other  persons  in  the  community. 
Of  such  a  leadership,  it  was  an  honour  even  to  be  among 
the  followers.  And  in  the  literary  achievements  of  New 
England  in  the  colonial  time,  the  clergy  filled  by  far  the 
largest  space,  because,  in  all  departments  of  writing,  they 
did  by  far  the  largest  amount  of  work.  After  the  first 
half-century  of  New  England  life,  another  fact  comes  into 
notice, — the  advance  of  the  laity  in  literary  activity.  By 
that  time,  many  strong  and  good  men,  who  had  been 
educated  there  in  all  the  learning  of  the  age,  either  not 
entering  the  clerical  profession  or  not  remaining  in  it, 
began  to  organise  and  to  develop  the  other  learned  pro- 


Colonial  Literature  27 

fessions — the  legal,  medical,  and  tuitionary — and,  appeal 
ing  to  the  public  through  various  forms  of  literature,  to 
divide  more  and  more  with  the  clergy  the  leadership  of 
men's  minds.  Moreover,  in  the  last  decade  of  the  seven 
teenth  century,  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  news 
paper  in  New  England.  The  attempt  failed.  In  the  first 
decade  of  the  eighteenth  century,  another  attempt  was 
made,  and  did  not  fail;  and  long  before  the  end  of  our 
colonial  epoch,  a  new  profession  had  come  into  existence, 
having  a  power  to  act  on  the  minds  of  men  more  mightily 
than  any  other, — the  profession  of  journalism. 

The  Almanac. — No  one  who  would  penetrate  to  the  core 
of  early  American  literature,  and  would  read  in  it  the 
secret  history  of  the  people  in  whose  minds  it  took  root 
and  from  whose  minds  it  grew,  may  by  any  means  turn 
away,  in  lofty  literary  scorn,  from  the  almanac.  The 
earliest  record  of  this  species  of  literature  in  America 
carries  us  back  to  the  very  beginning  of  printed  literature 
in  America;  for,  next  after  a  sheet  containing  The  Free 
man's  Oath,  the  first  production  that  came  from  the 
printing-press  in  this  country  was  An  Almanac  calculated 
for  New  England,  by  Mr.  Pierce,  and  printed  at  Cambridge, 
in  1639.  Thenceforward  for  a  long  time,  scarcely  a  year 
passed  over  that  solitary  printing-press  at  Cambridge 
without  receiving  a  similar  salute  from  it.  In  1676,  Boston 
itself  grew  wise  enough  to  produce  an  almanac  of  its  own. 
Ten  years  afterward,  Philadelphia  began  to  send  forth 
almanacs — a  trade  in  which,  in  the  following  century, 
it  was  to  acquire  special  glory.  In  1697,  New  York  entered 
the  same  enticing  field  of  enterprise.  The  first  almanac 
produced  in  Rhode  Island  was  in  1728;  the  first  almanac 
produced  in  Virginia  was  in  1731.  In  1733,  Benjamin 
Franklin  began  to  publish  what  he  called  Poor  Richard's 
Almanac,  to  which  his  own  personal  reputation  has  given 
a  celebrity  surpassing  that  of  all  other  almanacs  published 


28       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

anywhere  in  the  world.  Thus,  year  by  year,  with  the 
multiplication  of  people  and  of  printing-presses  in  this 
country,  was  there  a  multiplication  of  almanacs,  some  of 
them  being  of  remarkable  intellectual  and  even  literary 
merit.  Throughout  our  colonial  time,  when  larger  books 
were  costly  and  few,  the  almanac  had  everywhere  a  hearty 
welcome  and  frequent  perusal. 

History  and  Biography  in  New  England. — The  one 
form  of  secular  literature  for  which,  during  the  entire 
colonial  age,  the  writers  of  New  England  had  the  most 
authentic  vocation  is  history.  Our  second  literary  period 
produced  four  considerable  historians, — William  Hubbard, 
Cotton  Mather,  Thomas  Prince,  Thomas  Hutchinson: 
the  first  two  excelling  in  popularity  all  other  historians 
of  the  colonial  time;  the  last  two  excelling  all  others  in 
specific  training  for  the  profession  of  history,  and  in  the 
conscious  accumulation  of  materials  for  historic  work. 
Of  that  species  of  history  which  is  devoted  to  the  lives  of 
individuals  rather  than  of  communities,  there  were  many 
specimens  produced  in  the  colonial  epoch.  But  it  is  a 
singular  fact  that,  in  literary  quality,  the  biographies 
written  in  colonial  New  England  are  far  inferior  to  its 
histories. 

Pulpit  Literature  in  New  England. — In  our  progress 
over  the  various  fields  of  literature  in  New  England  during 
the  colonial  time,  we  encounter  not  one  form  of  writing 
in  which  we  are  permitted  to  lose  sight  of  the  clergy  of 
New  England, — their  tireless  and  versatile  activity,  their 
learning,  their  force  of  brain,  their  force  of  character. 
The  immigrant  clergy  of  New  England — the  founders  of 
this  noble  and  brilliant  order — were,  in  nearly  all  qualities 
of  personal  worth  and  greatness,  among  the  greatest  and 
the  worthiest  of  their  time,  in  the  mother-country, — mighty 


Literature  29 

scholars,  orators,  sages,  saints.  And  by  far  the  most 
wonderful  thing  about  these  men  is,  that  they  were  able 
to  convey  across  the  Atlantic,  into  a  naked  wilderness,  all 
the  essential  elements  of  that  ancient  civilisation  out  of 
which  they  came;  and,  at  once,  to  raise  up  and 
educate,  in  the  New  World,  a  line  of  mighty  succes 
sors  in  their  sacred  office,  without  the  least  break  in 
the  sequence,  without  the  slightest  diminution  in  schol 
arship,  in  eloquence,  in  intellectual  energy,  in  moral 
power. 

Jonathan  Edwards. — Jonathan  Edwards,  the  most  origi 
nal  and  acute  thinker  yet  produced  in  America,  was  born 
in  1703;  in  1758  he  was  installed  as  president  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  and  died  a  few  weeks  afterward. 
Both  by  his  father  and  by  his  mother,  he  came  of  the 
gentlest  and  most  intellectual  stock  in  New  England.  In 
early  childhood,  he  began  to  manifest  those  powerful, 
lofty,  and  beautiful  endowments,  of  mind  and  of  character, 
that  afterward  distinguished  him, — spirituality,  conscien 
tiousness,  meekness,  simplicity,  disinterestedness,  and  a 
marvellous  capacity  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and 
for  the  prosecution  of  independent  thought.  It  is,  per 
haps,  impossible  to  name  any  department  of  intellectual 
exertion,  in  which,  with  suitable  outward  facilities,  he 
might  not  have  achieved  supreme  distinction.  Certainly, 
he  did  enough  to  show  that  had  he  given  himself  to  math 
ematics,  or  to  physical  science,  or  to  languages,  or  to 
literature — especially  the  literature  of  imagination  and  of 
wit — he  would  have  become  one  of  the  world's  masters. 
The  traditions  of  his  family,  the  circumstances  of  his  life, 
the  impulses  derived  from  his  education  and  from  the 
models  of  personal  greatness  before  his  eyes,  all  led  him 
to  give  himself  to  mental  science  and  divinity;  and  in 
mental  science  and  divinity,  his  achievements  will  be 
remembered  to  the  end  of  time. 


30       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

III.       GENERAL  LITERARY  FORCES  IN  THE  COLONIAL  TIME 

Colonial  Isolation. — The  study  of  American  literature 
in  the  colonial  time  is  the  study  of  a  literature  produced, 
in  isolated  portions,  at  the  several  local  seats  of  English 
civilisation  in  America.  Before  the  year  1765,  we  find 
in  this  country,  not  one  American  people,  but  many 
American  peoples.  At  the  various  centres  of  our  colonial 
life — Georgia,  the  Carolinas,  Virginia,  Maryland,  Pennsyl 
vania,  New  York,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts 
— there  were,  indeed,  populations  of  the  same  English 
stock;  but  these  populations  differed  widely  in  personal 
and  social  peculiarities — in  spirit,  in  opinion,  in  custom. 
The  germs  of  a  future  nation  were  here,  only  they  were 
far  apart,  unsympathetic,  at  times  even  unfriendly.  No 
cohesive  principle  prevailed,  no  centralising  life;  each 
little  nation  was  working  out  its  own  destiny  in  its  own 
fashion.  In  general,  the  characteristic  note  of  American 
literature  in  the  colonial  time  is,  for  New  England, 
scholarly,  logical,  speculative,  unworldly,  rugged,  sombre; 
and  as  one  passes  southward  along  the  coast,  across  other 
spiritual  zones,  this  literary  note  changes  rapidly  toward 
lightness  and  brightness,  until  it  reaches  the  sensuous 
mirth,  the  satire,  the  persiflage,  the  gentlemanly  grace,  the 
amenity,  the  jocular  coarseness,  of  literature  in  Maryland, 
Virginia,  and  the  farther  South. 

Colonial  Fellowship. — On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  must 
not  be  overlooked  that,  while  the  tendency  toward  colonial 
isolation  had  its  way,  throughout  the  entire  colonial  age, 
there  was  also  an  opposite  tendency — a  tendency  toward 
colonial  fellowship — that  asserted  itself  even  from  the 
first,  and  yet  at  the  first  faintly,  but  afterward  with 
steadily  increasing  power  as  time  went  on;  until  at  last, 
in  1765,  aided  by  a  fortunate  blunder  in  the  statesmanship 
of  England,  this  tendency  became  suddenly  dominant, 


Colonial  Literature  31 

and  led  to  that  united  and  great  national  life,  without 
which  a  united  and  great  national  literature  here  would 
have  been  for  ever  impossible.  This  august  fact  of  fellow 
ship  between  the  several  English  populations  in  America 
— a  fellowship  maintained  and  even  strengthened  after  the 
original  occasion  of  it  had  ceased — has  perhaps  saved  the 
English  language  in  America  from  finally  breaking  up  into 
a  multitude  of  mutually  repellent  dialects ;  it  has  certainly 
saved  American  literature  from  the  pettiness  of  permanent 
local  distinctions,  from  fitfulness  in  its  development,  and 
from  disheartening  limitations  in  its  audience.  Besides 
these  general  causes  leading  toward  colonial  union, — kin 
ship,  religion,  commerce,  dependence  on  the  same  sovereign, 
peril  from  the  same  enemies, — there  were  three  other 
causes  that  may  be  described  as  purely  intellectual — the 
rise  of  journalism,  the  founding  of  colleges,  and  the  study 
of  physical  science.  They  worked  strongly  for  the  devel 
opment  of  that  intercolonial  fellowship  without  which 
no  national  literature  would  ever  have  been  born  here, 
and,  also,  were  in  themselves  literary  forces  of  extra 
ordinary  importance. 

Early  American  Journalism. — The  first  newspaper  ever 
published  in  America  appeared  in  Boston  in  1690,  and 
was  named  Public  Occurrences.  For  the  crime  of  uttering 
"  reflections  of  a  very  high  nature,"  it  was  immediately 
extinguished  by  the  authorities  of  Massachusetts, — not 
even  attaining  the  dignity  of  a  second  number.  Under 
this  rough  blow,  the  real  birth  of  American  journalism 
hesitated  for  fourteen  years.  On  April  4,  1704,  was  pub 
lished  in  Boston  the  first  number  of  an  American  news 
paper  that  lived.  It  was  called  The  Boston  News-Letter. 
For  fifteen  years,  it  continued  to  be  the  only  newspaper 
in  America.  At  last,  on  December  21,  1719,  a  rival  news 
paper  was  started,  named  The  Boston  Gazette;  and  on  the 
twenty-second  day  of  the  same  month,  in  the  same  year, 


32       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

there  appeared  in  Philadelphia  the  first  newspaper  pub 
lished  in  this  country  outside  of  Boston.  This  was  called 
The  American  Weekly  Mercury.  From  that  time  onward, 
the  fashion  of  having  newspapers  spread  rapidly.  Nearly 
all  of  these  newspapers  were  issued  once  each  week ;  many 
of  them  were  on  diminutive  sheets;  and  for  a  long  time 
all  of  them  clung  to  the  prudent  plan  of  publishing  only 
news  and  advertisements,  abstaining  entirely  from  the 
audacity  of  an  editorial  opinion,  or  disguising  that  danger 
ous  luxury  under  pretended  letters  from  correspondents. 
News  from  Europe, — when  it  was  to  be  had, — and  espe 
cially  news  from  England,  occupied  a  prominent  place  in 
these  little  papers;  but,  necessarily,  for  each  one,  the 
affairs  of  its  own  colony,  and  next,  the  affairs  of  the  other 
colonies,  furnished  the  principal  items  of  interest.  Thus 
it  was  that  early  American  journalism,  even  though  feeble, 
sluggish,  and  timid,  began  to  lift  the  people  of  each  colony 
to  a  plane  somewhat  higher  than  its  own  boundaries,  and 
to  enable  them,  by  looking  abroad,  this  way  and  that, 
upon  the  proceedings  of  other  people  in  this  country,  and 
upon  other  interests  as  precious  as  their  own,  to  correct 
the  pettiness  and  the  selfishness  of  mere  localism  in  thought. 
Colonial  journalism  was  a  necessary  and  a  great  factor  in 
the  slow  process  of  colonial  union.  Besides  this,  our 
colonial  journalism  soon  became,  in  itself,  a  really  import 
ant  literary  force.  It  could  not  remain  for  ever  a  mere 
disseminator  of  public  gossip,  or  a  placard  for  the  display 
of  advertisements.  The  instinct  of  critical  and  brave 
debate  was  strong  even  among  those  puny  editors,  and  it 
kept  struggling  for  expression.  Moreover,  each  editor 
was  surrounded  by  a  coterie  of  friends,  with  active  brains 
and  a  propensity  to  utterance;  and  these  constituted  a 
sort  of  unpaid  staff  of  editorial  contributors,  who,  in 
various  forms, — letters,  essays,  anecdotes,  epigrams,  poems, 
lampoons, — helped  to  give  vivacity  and  even  literary 
value  to  the  paper. 


Colonial  Literature  33 

Our  early  journalism,  likewise,  included  publications  of 
a  more  explicit  literary  intention  than  the  newspapers; 
publications  in  which  the  original  work  was  done  with  far 
greater  care,  and  in  which  far  more  space  was  surrendered 
to  literary  news  and  literary  criticism,  and  to  the  exercise 
of  many  sorts  of  literary  talent.  The  generic  name  for 
these  publications  is  the  magazine;  and  the  first  one  is 
sued  in  this  country  was  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  at  Phila 
delphia,  in  1741.  By  far  the  most  admirable  example 
of  our  literary  periodicals  in  the  colonial  time  was  The 
American  Magazine,  published  at  Philadelphia  from 
October,  1757,  to  October,  1758,  and  conducted,  accord 
ing  to  its  own  announcement,  "by  a  society  of  gentlemen." 

Early  American  Colleges. — No  other  facts  in  American 
history  are  more  creditable  to  the  American  people  than 
those  which  relate  to  their  early  and  steady  esteem  for 
higher  education,  and  especially  to  their  efforts  and  their 
sacrifices  in  the  founding  of  colleges.  Before  the  year 
1765,  seven  colleges  were  established  here:  Harvard;  in 
1636;  William  and  Mary,  in  1693;  Yale,  in  1700;  New 
Jersey,  in  1746;  King's— now  Columbia — in  1754;  Phila 
delphia — now  the  University  of  Pennsylvania — in  1755; 
Rhode  Island — now  Brown  University — in  1764.  Though 
all  these  little  establishments  bore  the  name  of  colleges, 
there  were  considerable  differences  among  them  with  re 
spect  to  the  grade  and  extent  of  the  instruction  they 
furnished, — those  founded  latest  being,  in  that  particular, 
the  most  rudimental.  Nevertheless,  at  them  all  one  noble 
purpose  prevailed, — the  study  of  the  ancient  classics.  This 
extraordinary  training  in  the  ancient  languages  led  to 
forms  of  proficiency  that  have  no  parallel  now  in  American 
colleges.  So  early  as  1649,  President  Dunster  wrote  to 
Ravius,  the  famous  Orientalist,  that  some  of  the  students 
at  Harvard  could  "with  ease  dexterously  translate  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  into  Greek."  In  1678,  there  was  in  that 


34       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

college  even  an  Indian  student  who  wrote  Latin  and  Greek 
poetry;  and  this  accomplishment  continued  to  be  an  or 
dinary  one  there  as  late  as  the  Revolutionary  War;  while 
the  facile  use  of  Latin,  whether  for  conversation  or  for 
oratory,  was  so  common  among  the  scholars  of  Harvard 
and  of  Yale  as  to  excite  no  remark.  Nearly  all  the  superior 
men  in  public  life,  after  the  immigrant  generation,  were 
educated  at  these  little  colleges;  and  in  all  the  studies 
that  then  engaged  the  attention  of  scholars  in  the  Old 
World,  these  men,  particularly  if  clergymen,  had  a  scholar 
ship  that  was,  in  compass  and  variety,  fully  abreast  of  the 
learning  of  the  time.  The  existence  here  of  these  early 
colleges  was  in  many  ways  a  means  of  colonial  fellowship. 
Each  college  was  itself,  in  all  portions  of  the  country,  a 
point  of  distinction  for  its  own  colony;  at  each  college 
were  gathered  some  students  from  other  colonies ;  between 
all  the  colleges  there  grew  a  sense  of  fraternity  in  learning 
and  letters,  and  this  re-enforced  the  general  sense  of 
fraternity  in  civic  destinies;  finally,  at  these  colleges 
was  trained  no  little  of  that  masterly  statesmanship  of  our 
later  colonial  time,  which,  at  a  glance,  interpreted  the 
danger  that  hung  upon  the  horizon  in  1765,  proclaimed 
the  imminent  need  of  colonial  union,  and  quickly  brought 
it  about.  The  vast  influence  that  our  early  colleges  exerted 
upon  literary  culture  can  hardly  be  overstated.  Among 
all  the  people,  they  nourished  those  spiritual  conditions 
out  of  which,  alone,  every  wholesome  and  genuine  literature 
must  grow;  and  in  their  special  devotion  to  classical 
studies,  they  imparted  to  a  considerable  body  of  men  the 
finest  training  for  literary  work  that  the  world  is  yet  pos 
sessed  of.  It  was  of  incalculable  service  to  American  litera 
ture  that,  even  in  these  wild  regions  of  the  earth,  the  accents 
of  Homer,  of  Thucydides,  of  Cicero,  were  made  familiar 
to  us  from  the  beginning;  that  a  consciousness  of  the 
aesthetic  principle  in  verbal  expression  was  kept  alive  here, 
and  developed,  by  constant  and  ardent  study  of  the  supreme 


Colonial  Literature  35 

masters  of  literary  form;  and  that  the  great,  immemorial 
traditions  of  literature  were  borne  hither  across  the  Atlantic 
from  their  ancient  seats,  and  were  here  housed  in  perpetual 
temples,  for  the  rearing  of  which  the  people  gladly  went 
to  great  cost.  The  tribute  of  most  eloquent  homage, 
which,  in  1775,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  Earl  of  Chatham 
paid  to  the  intellectual  force,  the  literary  symmetry,  and  the 
decorum  of  the  state-papers  then  recently  transmitted 
from  America,  and  then  lying  upon  the  table  of  that  House, 
was  virtually  an  announcement  to  Europe  of  the  astonish 
ing  news, — that,  by  means  of  an  intellectual  cultivation 
formed  in  America,  in  its  own  little  colleges,  on  the  best 
models  of  ancient  and  modern  learning,  America  had 
already  become  not  only  an  integral  part  of  the  civilised 
world,  but  even  a  member  of  the  republic  of  letters. 

The  Study  of  Physical  Science  in  America. — The  study. 
of  physical  science  in  this  country  began  with  the  very 
settlement  of  the  country.  The  writings  of  the  first  Ameri 
cans  are  strewn  with  sharp  observations  on  the  geography 
of  America,  on  its  minerals,  soils,  waters,  plants,  animals; 
on  its  climates,  storms,  earthquakes;  on  its  savage  in 
habitants,  its  diseases,  its  medicines;  and  on  the  phe 
nomena  of  the  heavens  as  they  appeared  to  this  part  of 
the  earth.  There  were  here,  even  in  our  earliest  age, 
several  men  of  special  scientific  inclination,  such  as  William 
Wood,  John  Josselyn,  John  Sherman,  John  Winthrop  of 
Massachusetts,  and  John  Winthrop  of  Connecticut.  In 
deed,  the  latter  was  recognised  as  an  eminent  physicist 
even  among  the  contemporaneous  physicists  of  England; 
and  in  Connecticut,  where  he  founded  the  city  of  New 
London,  and  where  he  was  for  many  years  Governor,  he 
pursued  with  great  zeal  his  scientific  researches,  carrying 
them  even  into  the  fatal  chase  for  the 'philosopher's  stone. 
He  was  on  terms  of  endearing  intimacy  with  Watkins, 
Robert  Boyle,  and  other  great  leaders  of  science  in  Engr 


36       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

land ;  and  it  is  said  that  under  the  menace  of  public  calam 
ities  there,  and  drawn,  likewise,  by  their  friendship  for 
Winthrop,  these  men  had  proposed  to  leave  England,  and 
to  establish  in  the  American  colony  over  which  Winthrop 
presided  "a  society  for  promoting  natural  knowledge." 
They  were,  however,  induced  by  Charles  II.  to  remain 
in  England;  and  accordingly,  with  the  co-operation  of 
Winthrop,  who  happened  to  be  in  London  at  the  time,  they 
founded  there,  instead  of  in  New  London,  the  association 
that  soon  became  renowned  throughout  the  world  as 
the  Royal  Society.  Perhaps  there  was  no  one  of  these 
early  American  students  of  nature  whom  it  is  now  pleasanter 
to  recall  than  the  Quaker  naturalist,  John  Bartram.  Born 
in  Pennsylvania,  in  1701,  he  founded  near  Philadelphia 
the  first  botanic  garden  in  America.  He  was  appointed 
American  botanist  to  George  III.,  and  won  from  Linnaeus 
the  praise  of  being  "the  greatest  natural  botanist  in  the 
world."  As  John  Bartram  represents  high  attainments  in 
science  reached  under  all  outward  disadvantages,  so  John 
Winthrop  of  Harvard  College  represents  still  higher  attain 
ments  in  science  reached  under  all  outward  advantages. 
A  descendant  of  the  first  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  from 
1738  until  his  death  in  1779  he  served  his  Alma  Mater 
with  great  distinction  as  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy.  For  extent  and  depth  of  learning  in 
his  special  departments,  he  was  probably  the  foremost 
American  of  his  day.  All  things  considered,  he  was  prob 
ably  the  most  symmetrical  example  both  of  scientific  and 
of  literary  culture  produced  in  America  during  the  colonial 
time;  representing  what  was  highest  and  broadest  in  it, 
what  was  most  robust  and  most  delicate;  a  thinker  and 
a  writer  born  and  bred  in  a  province,  but  neither  in  thought 
nor  in  speech  provincial;  an  American  student  of  nature 
and  of  human  nature,  who  stayed  at  home,  and  bringing 
Europe  and  the  universe  to  his  own  door,  made  himself 
cosmopolitan. 


Colonial  Literature  37 

Thus,  from  the  earliest  moment  of  American  civilisa 
tion,  there  were,  here  and  there  in  this  country,  eager  and 
keen  students  of  nature, — their  number  greatly  multiplying 
with  the  passing  of  the  years.  But  it  belongs  to  the 
essence  of  such  studies  that  they  who  pursue  them  should 
seek  the  fellowship  of  their  own  brethren,  either  for  help 
in  solving  difficulties  or  for  delight  in  announcing  dis 
coveries;  and  it  is,  beyond  question,  true  that  the  union 
of  the  American  colonies  was  first  laid  in  the  friendly 
correspondence  and  intellectual  sympathies  of  students  of 
physical  science,  who  from  an  early  day  were  dispersed 
through  these  colonies.  By  the  year  1740,  the  American 
students  of  nature  had  become  a  multitude;  and  from 
that  year  to  the  year  1765,  the  glory  of  physical  research 
among  us  culminated  in  the  brilliant  achievements  of 
Benjamin  Franklin,  whose  good  fortune  it  then  was  to 
enable  his  country  to  step  at  once  to  the  van  of  scientific 
discovery,  and  for  a  few  years  to  be  the  teacher  of  the 
world  on  the  one  topic  of  physical  inquiry  then  upper 
most  in  men's  thoughts.  In  proposing  the  formation  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society,  this  wonderful  man 
had  announced  to  his  own  countrymen  that  the  time  had 
come  for  them  to  make  new  and  greater  exertions  for  the 
enlargement  of  human  knowledge.  Inspired  by  the  noble 
enthusiasm  of  Franklin,  whose  position  brought  him  into 
large  personal  acquaintance  in  all  the  colonies,  the  activity 
and  the  range  of  scientific  studies  in  America  were  then 
greatly  increased, — a  bond  of  scientific  communion  that 
helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  political  communion, 
whenever  the  hour  for  that  should  come.  The  direct 
impulse  given  by  all  this  eager  study  of  physical 
science  to  the  development  of  American  literature  is 
to  be  seen  not  only  in  scientific  writings  like  those  of 
Winthrop  and  of  Franklin,  which  have  high  and  peculiar 
literary  merit,  but  in  the  general  invigoratioii  of  Ameri 
can  thought,  in  the  development  of  a  sturdy  rational 


38       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

spirit,  and  in  a  broadening  of  the  field  of  our  intellectual 
vision. 

But,  in  spite  of  all  these  influences  working  toward 
colonial  fellowship,  the  prevailing  fact  in  American  life, 
down  to  the  year  1765,  was  colonial  isolation.  With  that 
year  came  the  immense  event  that  suddenly  swept  nearly 
all  minds  in  the  several  colonies  into  the  same  great 
current  of  absorbing  thought,  and  that  held  them  there 
for  nearly  twenty  years.  From  the  date  of  that  event,  we 
cease  to  concern  ourselves  with  an  American  literature  in 
the  East  or  the  South,  in  this  colony  or  in  that.  Hence 
forward  American  literature  flows  in  one  great,  common 
stream,  and  not  in  petty  rills  of  geographical  discrimina 
tion, — the  literature  of  one  multitudinous  people,  variegated 
indeed,  in  personal  traits,  but  single  in  its  commanding 
ideas  and  in  its  national  destinies. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD 

I  .       A  GENERAL  VIEW 

The  Three  Stages. — In  the  intellectual  process  of  the 
American  Revolution,  are  to  be  observed  three  well  defined 
stages  of  development  on  the  part  of  the  men  who  began 
and  carried  through  that  notable  enterprise.  Th£_first 
stage — extending  from  the^ spring  of  1763  to  the,  spring 
of  1775 — represents  fhe  noble  anxiety  which  brave  men 
must  feel  when  Vheir  political  safety  is  imperilled,  this 
anxiety,  however,  being  deepened  in  their  case  by  a  sincere 
and  even  a  passionate  desire,  while  roughly  resisting  an 
offensive  ministerial  policy,  to  keep  within  the  bounds  of 
constitutional  opposition,  and  neither  to  forsake  nor  to 
forfeit  that  connection  with  the  mother-country  which 
they  then  held  to  be  among  the  most  precious  of  their 
earthly  possessions.  The  second^ta^e — extending  from 
the  spring  of  1775  to  tee  early  summer  of  1776 — repre 
sents  a  rapidly  spreading  doubt,  and  yet  at  first  no  more 
than  a  doubt,  as  to  the  possibility  of  their  continuing 
to  be  free  men  without  ceasing  to  be  English  colonists. 
This  doubt,  of  course,  had  been  felt  by  not  a  few  of  them 
long  before  the  day  of  the  Lexington  and  Concord  fights; 
but  under  the  appalling  logic  of  that  day  of  brutality, 
it  became  suddenly  weaponed  with  a  power  which  mere 
words  never  had, — the  power  to  undo  swiftly,  in  the  hearts 
of  a  multitude  of  liegemen,  the  tie  of  race,  the  charm  of  an 
antique  national  tradition,  the  loyalty,  the  love,  and  the 
pride  of  centuries.  The  third  stage — extending  from  the 

39 


40       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

early  summer  of  1776  to  the  very  close  of  the  whole  struggle 
— represents  a  final  conviction,  at  least  on  the  part  of  a 
working  majority  of  the  American  people,  that  it  would 
be  impossible  for  them  to  preserve  their  political  rights 
and  at  the  same  time  to  remain  inside  the  British  Empire, 
— this  conviction  being  also  accompanied  by  the  resolve  to 
preserve  those  rights  whether  or  no,  and  at  whatsoever  cost 
of  time,  or  effort,  or  pain. 

Of  course,  the  intellectual  attitude  of  the  Loyalists 
of  the  Revolution — always  during  that  period  an  immense 
and  a  very  conscientious  minority — correlated  to  that  of 
the  Revolutionists  in  each  one  of  these  three  stages  of 
development:  in  the  first  stage,  by  a  position  of  qualified 
dissent  as  to  the  gravity  of  the  danger  and  as  to  the  proper 
method  of  dealing  with  it;  in  the  second  and  third  stages, 
by  a  position  of  unqualified  dissent,  and  of  implacable 
hostility,  as  regards  the  object  and  motive  and  method 
of  the  opposition  which  was  then  conducted  by  their  more 
masterful  fellow-countrymen. 

The  Predominant  Note. — The  chief  trait  of  American 
literature  during  the  period  now  under  view  is  this:  its 
concern  with  the  problems  of  American  society,  and  of 
American  society  in  a  peculiar  condition — aroused,  in 
flammable,  in  a  state  of  alarm  for  its  own  existence,  but 
also  in  a  state  of  resolute  combat  for  it.  The  literature 
which  we  are  thus  to  inspect  is  not,  then,  a  literature  of 
tranquillity,  but  chiefly  a  literature  of  strife,  or,  as  the 
Greeks  would  have  said,  of  agony;  and,  of  course,  it  must 
take  those  forms  in  which  intellectual  and  impassioned 
debate  can  be  most  effectually  carried  on.  The  literature 
of  our  Revolution  has  almost  everywhere  the  combative 
note;  its  habitual  method  is  argumentative,  persuasive, 
appealing,  rasping,  retaliatory;  the  very  brain  of  man 
seems  to  be  in  armour;  his  wit  is  in  the  gladiator's  attitude 
of  offence  and  defence.  It  is  a  literature  indulging  itself 


The  Revolutionary  Period  41 

in  grimaces,  in  mockery,  in  scowls:  a  literature  accented 
by  earnest  gestures  meant  to  convince  people,  or  by  fierce 
blows  meant  to  smite  them  down.  In  this  literature  we 
must  not  expect  to  find  art  used  for  art's  sake. 

Our  next  discovery  is  the  rather  notable  one  that  such 
a  period  actually  had  a  literary  product  very  considerable 
in  amount.  Even  in  those  perturbed  years  between  1763 
and  1783,  there  was  a  large  mass  of  literature  produced 
in  America.  More  than  with  most  other  epochs  of  revolu 
tionary  strife,  our  epoch  of  revolutionary  strife  was  a  strife 
of  ideas:  a  long  warfare  of  political  logic;  a  succession  of 
annual  campaigns  in  which  the  marshalling  of  arguments 
not  only  preceded  the  marshalling  of  armies,  but  often  ex 
ceeded  them  in  impression  upon  the  final  result.  An  epoch 
like  this,  therefore, — an  epoch  in  which  nearly  all  that  is 
great  and  dear  in  man's  life  on  earth  has  to  be  argued 
for,  as  well  as  to  be  fought  for,  and  in  which  ideas  have 
a  work  to  do  quite  as  pertinent  and  quite  as  effective  as 
that  of  bullets, — can  hardly  fail  to  be  an  epoch  teeming 
with  literature,  with  literature,  of  course,  in  the  particular 
forms  suited  to  the  purposes  of  political  co-operation  and 
conflict. 

We  shall  be  much  helped  by  keeping  in  mind  the  dis 
tinction  between  two  classes  of  writings  then  produced 
among  us:  first,  those  writings  which  were  the  result  of 
certain  general  intellectual  interests  and  activities  apart 
from  the  Revolutionary  movement,  and,  secondly,  those 
writings  which  were  the  result  of  intellectual  interests  and 
activities  directly  awakened  and  sustained  by  that  move 
ment.  The  presence  of  the  first  class  we  discover  chiefly 
in  the  earlier  years  of  this  period,  before  the  Revolutionary 
idea  had  become  fully  developed  and  fully  predominant; 
and,  again,  in  the  later  years  of  the  period,  when,  with  the 
success  of  the  Revolution  assured,  the  Revolutionary  idea 
had  begun  to  recede,  and  men's  minds  were  free  to  swing 
again  toward  the  usual  subjects  of  human  concern, 


42       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

particularly  toward  those  which  were  to  occupy  them  after 
the  attainment  of  independence  and  of  peace. 

Literary  Centres, — We  shall  find,  within  the  first  decade 
of  this  period  and  before  its  culmination  into  the  final 
violence  of  the  Revolutionary  controversy,  the  beginnings 
of  a  new  and  a  truer  life  in  America.  Of  this  new  literary 
life  there  were,  in  general,  two  chief  centres,  one  in  the 
New  England,  one  in  the  Middle  Colonies.  The  New 
England  literary  centre  was  at  New  Haven,  and  was 
dominated  by  the  influence  of  Yale  College,  within  which, 
especially  between  1767  and  1773,  was  a  group  of  brilliant 
young  men  passionately  devoted  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics,  and  brought  into  contact  with  the  spirit  of  modern 
letters  through  their  sympathetic  study  of  the  later 
masters  of  English  prose  and  verse.  The  foremost  man 
in  this  group  was  John  Trumbull. 

The  new  literary  life  of  the  Middle  Colonies  had  its  seat 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and 
was  keenly  stimulated  by  the  influence  of  their  two  colleges, 
and  also  by  that  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey  under  the 
strong  man — Witherspoon — who  came  to  its  presidency 
in  1768.  The  foremost  representative  of  this  new  literary 
tendency  was  Philip  Freneau,  a  true  man  of  genius,  the 
one  poet  of  unquestionable  originality  granted  to  America 
prior  to  the  nineteenth  century.  Of  him  and  of  his  brother 
poet  in  New  England,  it  is  to  be  said  that  both  began  to  do 
their  work  while  still  in  youth;  both  seemed  to  have  a 
vocation  for  disinterested  literature  in  prose  as  well  as  in 
verse ;  both  were  reluctantly  driven  from  that  vocation  by 
the  intolerable  political  storm  that  then  burst  over  the 
land;  both  were  swept  into  the  Revolutionary  movement, 
and,  thenceforward,  the  chief  literary  work  of  both  was 
as  political  satirists.  From  about  the  year  1774,  little  trace 
of  an  aesthetic  purpose  in  American  letters  is  to  be  dis 
covered  until  after  the  close  of  the  Revolution, 


The  Revolutionary  Period  43 

Classification  of  the  Revolutionary  Writings, — The  char 
acteristic  life  of  the  period  we  now  have  in  view  was 
political,  and  not  political  only,  but  polemic,  and  fiercely 
polemic,  and  at  last  revolutionary;  and  its  true  literary 
expression  is  to  be  recognised  in  those  writings,  whether  in 
prose  or  in  verse,  which  gave  utterance  to  that  life.  Such 
writings  seem  naturally  to  fall  into  nine  principal  classes. 

First,  may  here  be  named  the  correspondence  of  the 
time ;  especially,  the  letters  touching  on  public  affairs  which 
passed  between  persons  in  different  portions  of  America, 
and  in  which  men  of  kindred  opinions  found  one  another 
out,  informed  one  another,  stimulated,  guided,  aided  one 
another,  in  the  common  struggle.  Indeed,  the  correspond 
ence  of  our  Revolution,  both  official  and  unofficial,  consti 
tutes  a  vast,  a  fascinating,  and  a  significant  branch  of  its 
literature.  Undoubtedly,  the  best  of  all  the  letter-writers 
of  the  time  was  Franklin;  and  next  to  him,  perhaps,  were 
John  Adams,  and  Abigail  Adams,  his  wife.  Indeed  the 
letters  of  Mrs.  Adams,  mostly  to  her  husband,  and  covering 
this  entire  period,  are  among  the  most  delightful  specimens 
of  such  work  as  done  by  any  American.  Not  far  behind 
these  first  three  letter- writers,  if  indeed  they  were  behind 
them,  must  be  mentioned  Jefferson  and  John  Dickinson; 
and,  for  shrewdness  of  observation,  for  humour,  for  lightness 
of  touch,  for  the  gracious  negligee  of  cultivated  speech,  not 
far  behind  any  of  them  was  a  letter-writer  now  almost 
unknown,  Richard  Peters  of  Philadelphia.  Of  course,  no 
one  goes  to  the  letters  of  Washington,  in  the  expectation 
of  finding  there  sprightliness  of  thought,  flexibility,  or  ease 
of  movement;  yet,  in  point  of  diligence  and  productiveness, 
he  was  one  of  the  great  letter- writers  of  that  age. 

The  second  form  of  literature  embodying  the  char 
acteristic  life  of  our  Revolutionary  era  is  made  up  of  those 
writings  which  were  put  forth  at  nearly  every  critical  stage 
of  the  long  contest,  either  by  the  local  legislatures,  or  by 
the  General  Congress,  or  by  prominent  men  in  public  office, 


44       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

and  which  may  now  be  described  comprehensively  as  State 
Papers.  It  is  probable  that  we  have  never  yet  sufficiently 
considered  the  extraordinary  intellectual  merits  of  this 
great  group  of  writings,  or  the  prodigious  practical  service 
which,  by  means  of  those  merits,  they  rendered  to  the 
struggling  cause  of  American  self-government,  particularly 
in  procuring  for  the  insurrectionary  colonists,  first,  the  re 
spectful  recognition,  and  then  the  moral  confidence,  of  the 
civilised  world. 

The  third  class  of  writings  directly  expressive  of  the 
spirit  and  life  of  the  Revolution  consists  of  oral  addresses, 
either  secular  or  sacred, — that  is,  of  speeches,  formal 
orations,  and  political  sermons.  "In  America,  as  in  the 
Grand  Rebellion  in  England,"  said  a  Loyalist  writer — 
Boucher — of  our  Revolutionary  time,  "much  execution 
was  done  by  sermons."  Had  it  been  otherwise,  there  would 
now  be  cause  for  wonder.  Indeed,  the  preachers  were 
then  in  full  possession  of  that  immense  leadership,  intel 
lectual  and  moral,  which  had  belonged  to  their  order, 
in  America  ever  since  its  settlement,  in  England  ever  since 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century;  and  though  this 
tradition  of  leadership  was  beginning  to  suffer  under  the 
rivalry  of  the  printing-press  and  under  the  ever-thickening 
blows  of  rationalism,  yet,  when  aroused  and  concentrated 
upon  any  object,  they  still  wielded  an  enormous  influence 
over  the  opinions  and  actions  of  men, — even  as  to  the 
business  of  this  world.  Without  the  aid  "of  the  black 
regiment,"  as  he  facetiously  called  them,  James  Otis  de 
clared  his  inability  to  carry  his  points.  Late  in  the  year 
1774,  the  Loyalist,  Daniel  Leonard,  in  an  essay  account 
ing  for  the  swift  and  alarming  growth  of  the  spirit  of 
resistance  and  even  of  revolution  in  America,  gave  a 
prominent  place  to  the  part  then  played  in  the  agitation 
by  "our  dissenting  ministers."  "What  effect  must  it  have 
had  upon  the  audience,"  said  he,  "to  hear  the  same 
sentiments  and  principles,  which  they  had  before  read  in 


The  Revolutionary  Period  45 

a  newspaper,  delivered  on  Sundays  from  the  sacred  desk, 
with  a  religious  awe,  and  the  most  solemn  appeals  to 
heaven,  from  lips  which  they  had  been  taught  from  their 
cradles  to  believe  could  utter  nothing  but  eternal  truths!" 
The  literary  history  of  the  pulpit  of  the  American  Revolu 
tion  is  virtually  a  history  of  the  pulpit-champions  of  that 
movement;  since  those  preachers  who  were  not  its  cham 
pions  could  seldom  find  a  printer  bold  enough  to  put  their 
sermons  to  press,  or  even  an  opportunity  to  speak  them 
from  the  pulpit.  Nor  was  it  necessary  that  ministers 
should  seem  to  go  out  of  their  way  in  order  to  discourse 
upon  those  bitter  secular  themes:  indeed,  they  would 
have  been  forced  to  go  out  of  their  way  in  order  to  avoid 
doing  so.  Fast  days,  thanksgiving  days,  election  days, 
the  anniversaries  of  battles  and  of  important  acts  of 
Congress  and  of  other  momentous  events  in  the  progress 
of  the  struggle,  brought  such  topics  to  the  very  doors  of 
their  studies,  and  even  laid  them  upon  the  open  Bibles  in 
their  pulpits.  Moreover,  if  any  clergyman  held  back  from 
political  preaching,  he  was  not  likely  to  escape  some 
reminder,  more  or  less  gentle,  as  to  what  was  expected 
of  him  in  such  a  time  of  awful  stress  and  peril.  ''Does 
Mr.  Wibird  preach  against  oppression  and  the  other 
cardinal  vices  of  the  time?"  wrote  John  Adams  to  his  wife, 
from  Philadelphia,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill.  "Tell  him,  the  clergy  here  of  every  denomination, 
not  excepting  the  Episcopalian,  thunder  and  lighten  every 
Sabbath.  They  pray  for  Boston  and  the  Massachusetts. 
They  thank  God  most  explicitly  and  fervently  for  our 
remarkable  successes.  They  pray  for  the  American 
army." 

More  than  in  all  other  publications,  it  was  in  the  fourth 
class  of  writings,  namely,  the  political  essays  of  the  period, 
that  the  American  people,  on  both  sides  of  the  great  con 
troversy,  gave  utterance  to  their  real  thoughts,  their  real 
purposes,  their  fears,  their  hopes,  their  hatreds,  touching 


46      A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

the  bitter  questions  which  then  divided  them.  The  political 
essay,  whether  in  the  shape  of  the  newspaper  article  or  in 
that  of  the  pamphlet,  gives  us  the  most  characteristic  type 
of  American  literature  for  that  portion  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Closely  associated  with  the  political  essay  as  the  most 
powerful  form  of  prose  in  the  literature  of  the  American 
Revolution,  should  be  mentioned  the  political  satire,  as 
being  likewise  the  most  powerful  form  of  verse  during  the 
same  period,  and  as  constituting  the  fifth  class  of  writings 
directly  expressive  of  its  thought  and  passion.  The  best 
examples  of  satire  to  be  met  with  among  us  before  the 
Revolutionary  dispute  had  reached  its  culmination  may  be 
seen  in  the  earlier  and  non-political  verse  of  Freneau  and 
John  Trumbull.  It  is  true  that  no  great  place  was  given 
to  satire  until  about  the  year  1775 — that  is,  until  the 
debate  had  nearly  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  argument. 
From  that  time,  however,  and  until  very  near  the  close  of 
the  Revolution,  this  form  of  literature  rivalled,  and  at  times 
almost  set  aside,  the  political  essay  as  an  instrument  of 
impassioned  political  strife.  On  the  Revolutionist  side,  the 
chief  masters  of  political  satire  were  Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Trumbull,  and  Philip  Freneau.  On  the  side  of  the 
Loyalists,  the  satirical  poet  who  in  art  and  in  power  sur 
passed  all  his  fellows,  was  Jonathan  Odell. 

For  the  sixth  class  of  writings  characteristic  of  the 
period,  we  may  take  the  popular  lyric  poetry  of  the  Revolu 
tion, — the  numberless  verses,  commonly  quite  inelaborate 
and  unadorned,  that  were  written  to  be  sung  at  the  hearth 
stone,  by  the  camp-fire,  on  the  march,  on  the  battle-field, 
in  all  places  of  solemn  worship. 

Our  seventh  class  gathers  up  the  numerous  literary 
memorials  of  the  long  struggle  as  a  mere  wit-combat,  a 
vast  miscellany  of  humorous  productions  in  verse  and 
prose.  The  newspapers  of  the  Revolutionary  period  are 
strewn  with  such  productions, — satirical  poems,  long  and 


The  Revolutionary  Period  47 

short,  of  nearly  all  degrees  of  merit  and  demerit,  some  of 
them  gross  and  obscene,  some  of  them  simply  clownish 
and  stupid,  some  absolutely  brutal  in  their  partisan 
ferocity,  some  really  clever — terse,  polished,  and  edged 
with  wit. 

For  the  eighth  class,  partly  in  prose,  chiefly  in  verse, 
are  brought  together  the  dramatic  compositions  of  the 
period, — a  class  not  inconsiderable  in  number,  in  variety, 
in  vigour,  and  thoroughly  representative  both  of  the  humour 
and  of  the  tragic  sentiment  of  the  period.  Tentative  and 
crude  as  are  nearly  all  of  these  writings,  they  are  not  un 
worthy  of  some  slight  attention,  in  the  first  place,  as 
giving  the  genesis  of  a  department  of  American  literature 
now  become  considerable ;  but,  chiefly,  as  reproducing  the 
ideas,  the  passions,  the  motives,  and  the  moods  of  that 
stormful  time  in  our  history,  with  a  frankness,  a  liveliness, 
and  an  unshrinking  realism  not  approached  by  any  other 
species  of  Revolutionary  literature. 

Finally,  to  the  ninth  class  belong  those  prose  narra 
tives  that  sprang  out  of  the  actual  experiences  of  the 
Revolution,  and  that  have  embodied  such  experiences  in 
the  several  forms  of  personal  diaries,  military  journals,  tales 
of  adventure  on  land  or  sea,  and  especially  records  of 
suffering  in  the  military  prisons.  Besides  these,  there 
are  several  elaborate  contemporary  histories  of  the 
Revolution. 

Perhaps  no  aspect  of  the  Revolutionary  War  has  touched 
more  powerfully  the  imagination  and  sympathy  of  the 
American  people,  than  that  relating  to  the  sufferings  borne 
by  their  own  sailors  and  soldiers  who  chanced  to  fall  as 
prisoners  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy;  and  for  many 
years  after  the  war,  the  bitterness  which  it  brought  into 
the  hearts  of  men  was  kept  alive  and  was  hardened  into 
a  perdurable  race-tradition  through  the  tales  which  were 
told  by  the  survivors  of  the  British  prison-pens  and 
especially  of  the  British  prison-ships. 


48      A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

II.       THE  PRINCIPAL  WRITERS 

James  Otis. — After  his  graduation  at  Harvard,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  James  Otis  spent  a  year  and  a  half  at 
home  in  the  study  of  literature  and  philosophy;  then, 
devoting  himself  to  the  law,  he  had  begun  its  practice  at 
Plymouth  in  1748;  after  two  years  of  residence  there,  he 
had  removed  to  Boston,  and  in  spite  of  his  youth,  he  had 
quickly  risen  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession.  Through 
out  his  whole  career,  he  held  to  his  early  love  of  the  Roman 
and  Greek  classics,  particularly  of  Homer;  while  in  Eng 
lish  his  literary  taste  was  equally  robust  and  wholesome. 
He  was  a  powerful  writer,  and  he  wrote  much ;  but  in  the 
structure  and  form  of  what  he  wrote,  there  are  few  traces 
of  that  enthusiasm  for  classical  literature  which  we  know 
him  to  have  possessed.  Perhaps  his  nature  was  too  harsh, 
too  passionate  and  ill-balanced,  to  yield  to  the  culture 
even  of  a  literary  perfection  which  he  could  fully  recognise 
and  enjoy  in  others.  He  was,  above  all  things,  an  orator; 
and  his  oratory  was  of  the  tempestuous  kind — bold,  vehe 
ment,  irregular,  overpowering. 

In  July,  1764,  he  published  his  gravest  and  most  mod 
erate  pamphlet,  The  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies  Asserted 
and  Proved.  Of  all  his  political  writing,  this  is  the  most 
sedate.  It  has  even  a  tone  of  solemnity.  Indeed,  its 
moderation  of  tone,  at  the  time,  gave  considerable  offence 
to  some  of  his  own  associates.  The  pamphlet  was  said 
to  have  satisfied  nobody.  Yet  it  gave  food  for  thought  to 
everybody;  and  it  is  the  one  work  of  Otis  on  which  rests 
his  reputation  as  a  serious  political  thinker.  The  real 
object  of  Otis  in  this  powerful  pamphlet  was  not  to  bring 
about  a  revolution,  but  to  avert  one.  But  its  actual  effect 
was  to  furnish  the  starting-point  for  the  entire  movement 
of  revolutionary  reasoning,  by  which  some  two  millions 
of  people  were  to  justify  themselves  in  the  years  to  come, 
as  they  advanced  along  their  rugged  and  stormy  path 
toward  independence.  It  became  for  a  time  one  of  the 


The  Revolutionary  Period  49 

legal  text-books  of  the  opponents  of  the  ministry;  it  was 
a  law-arsenal,  from  which  other  combatants,  on  that  side, 
drew  some  of  their  best  weapons.  It  expounded,  with 
perfect  clearness,  even  if  with  some  shrinking,  the  con 
stitutional  philosophy  of  the  whole  subject;  and  it  gave 
to  the  members  of  a  conservative  and  a  law-respecting 
race  a  conservative  and  a  lawful  pretext  for  resisting  law, 
and  for  revolutionising  the  government. 

John  Adams. — Among  the  most  striking  of  the  literary 
responses  to  the  news  that,  in  disregard  of  all  appeals 
from  America,  the  Stamp  Act  had  become  a  law,  was  one 
by  a  writer  of  extraordinary  vigour  in  argument,  of  extra 
ordinary  affluence  in  invective,  who  chose  to  view  the 
whole  problem  as  having  logical  and  historical  relations 
far  more  extensive  than  had  then  been  commonly  sup 
posed.  This  writer  was  John  Adams,  then  but  thirty 
years  old,  a  rising  member  of  the  bar  of  Massachusetts, 
already  known  in  that  neighbourhood  for  his  acuteness, 
fearlessness,  and  restless  energy  as  a  thinker  and  for  a 
certain  truculent  and  sarcastic  splendour  in  his  style  of 
speech.  To  the  very  end  of  his  long  life,  even  his  most 
offhand  writings,  such  as  diaries  and  domestic  letters, 
reveal  in  him  a  trait  of  speculative  activity  and  boldness. 
With  the  exception  of  Jefferson,  he  is  the  most  readable 
of  the  statesmen  of  the  Revolutionary  period.  A  series 
of  four  essays  by  John  Adams,  which  were  first  published, 
though  without  his  name  and  without  any  descriptive  title, 
in  The  Boston  Gazette,  in  August,  1765,  by  their  wide 
range  of  allusion,  their  novelty,  audacity,  eloquence,  by 
the  jocular  savagery  of  their  sarcasms  on  things  sacred, 
easily  and  quickly  produced  a  stir,  and  won  for  them 
selves  considerable  notoriety.  In  1768,  they  were  welded 
together  into  a  single  document,  and  as  such  were  pub 
lished  in  London  under  the  somewhat  misleading  title 
of  A  Dissertation  on  the  Canon  and  the  Federal  Law. 


50      A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Francis  Hopkinson. — On  September  5,  1774,  forty- 
four  respectable  gentlemen,  representing  twelve  "  colonies 
and  provinces  in  North  America,"  made  their  way  into 
Carpenters'  Hall,  Philadelphia,  and  there  began  "to  con 
sult  upon  the  present  state  of  the  colonies."  Thus  came 
into  life  the  first  Continental  Congress,  and  with  it  the 
permanent  political  union  of  the  American  people.  As 
they  came  out  from  that  hall,  some  of  them  may  have 
found,  on  stepping  into  Mr.  John  Dunlap's  shop  not  far 
away,  a  lively-looking  little  book — A  Pretty  Story — just 
come  from  the  printer's  hands,  in  which  book,  under  the 
veil  of  playful  allegory,  they  could  read  in  a  few  minutes 
a  graphic  and  indeed  a  quite  tremendous  history  of  the 
very  events  that  had  brought  them  together  in  that  place. 
Even  a  glance  over  this  little  book  will  show  that  here  at 
last  was  a  writer,  enlisted  in  the  colonial  cause,  who  was 
able  to  defend  that  cause,  and  to  assail  its  enemies,  with 
a  fine  and  a  very  rare  weapon — that  of  humour.  The  per 
sonages  included  in  A  Pretty  Story  are  few;  its  topics 
are  simple  and  palpable,  and  even  now  in  but  little  need 
of  elucidation;  the  plot  and  incidents  of  the  fiction  travel 
in  the  actual  footsteps  of  well-known  history;  while  the 
aptness,  the  delicacy,  and  the  humour  of  the  allegory  give 
to  the  reader  the  most  delightful  surprises,  and  are  well 
sustained  to  the  very  end.  Indeed,  the  wit  of  the  author 
flashes  light  upon  every  legal  question  then  at  issue;  and 
the  stern  and  even  technical  debate  between  the  colonies 
and  the  motherland  is  here  translated  into  a  piquant  and  a 
bewitching  novelette.  It  soon  became  known  that  its 
author  was  Francis  Hopkinson. 

By  this  neat  and  telling  bit  of  work,  Hopkinson  took 
his  true  place  as  one  of  the  three  leading  satirists  on  the 
Whig  side  of  the  American  Revolution, — the  other  two 
being  John  Trumbull  and  Philip  Freneau.  In  the  long 
and  passionate  controversy  in  which  these  three  satirists 
bore  so  effective  a  part,  each  is  distinguishable  by  his 


The  Revolutionary  Period  51 

own  peculiar  note.  The  political  satire  of  Freneau  and 
of  Trumbull  is,  in  general,  grim,  bitter,  vehement,  unre 
lenting.  Hopkinson's  satire  is  as  keen  as  theirs,  but  its 
characteristic  note  is  one  of  playfulness.  They  stood 
forth  the  wrathful  critics  and  assailants  of  the  enemy, 
confronting  him  with  a  hot  and  an  honest  hatred,  and 
ready  to  overwhelm  him  with  an  acerbity  that  was  fell 
and  pitiless.  Hopkinson,  on  the  other  hand,  was  too 
gentle,  too  tender-hearted — his  personal  tone  was  too  full 
of  amenity — for  that  sort  of  warfare.  As  a  satirist,  he 
accomplished  his  effects  without  bitterness  or  violence. 
No  one  saw  more  vividly  than  he  what  was  weak,  or 
despicable,  or  cruel,  in  the  position  and  conduct  of  the 
enemy ;  but  in  exhibiting  it,  his  method  was  that  of  good- 
humoured  ridicule.  Never  losing  his  temper,  almost  never 
extreme  in  emotion  or  in  expression,  with  an  urbanity 
which  kept  unfailingly  upon  his  side  the  sympathies  of  his 
readers,  he  knew  how  to  dash  and  discomfit  the  foe  with 
a  raillery  that  was  all  the  more  effective  because  it  seemed 
to  spring  from  the  very  absurdity  of  the  case,  and  to  be, 
as  Ben  Jonson  required,  "  without  malice  or  heat." 

Francis  Hopkinson  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1737. 
Even  in  these  days,  he  would  have  been  regarded  as  a 
man  of  quite  unusual  cultivation,  having  in  reality  many 
solid  as  well  as  shining  accomplishments.  He  was  a 
distinguished  practitioner  of  the  law;  he  became  an  emi 
nent  judge;  he  was  a  statesman  trained  by  much  study 
and  experience;  he  was  a  mathematician,  a  chemist,  a 
physicist,  a  mechanician,  an  inventor,  a  musician  and  a 
composer  of  music,  a  man  of  literary  knowledge  and 
practice,  a  writer  of  airy  and  dainty  songs,  a  clever  artist 
with  pencil  and  brush,  and  a  humourist  of  unmistakable 
power.  For  us  Americans,  the  name  of  Francis  Hop 
kinson  lives — if  indeed  it  does  live — chiefly  on  account 
of  its  presence  in  the  august  roll-call  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  He  was  a  devotee  to 


52       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

the  law,  who  never  took  farewell  of  the  Muses.  And  thus 
it  came  about  that,  from  the  autumn  of  1774  on  until 
the  very  close  of  the  long  struggle,  the  cause  of  the  Re 
volution,  at  nearly  every  stage  and  emergency  of  it,  was 
rescued  from  depression,  was  quickened,  was  cheered 
forward,  was  given  strength,  by  the  vivacity  of  this  de 
lightful  writer. 

For  the  development  among  the  Americans  in  1776 
of  the  robust  political  courage  invoked  by  their  new 
doctrine  of  national  separation,  it  was  necessary  that  the 
amiable  note  of  provincialism — the  filial  obtuseness  of  the 
colonial  mind — should  be  broken  up,  and  that  the  English 
men  who  lived  in  America  should  begin  to  find  food  for 
mirth  and  even  for  derision  in  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Englishmen  who  lived  in  England.  Toward  this  important 
political  result,  Hopkinson  made  some  contribution  in  his 
so-called  Letter  written  by  a  Foreigner  on  the  Character 
of  the  English  Nation.  Under  an  old  device  for  secur 
ing  disinterested  judgments  on  national  peculiarities,  Hop 
kinson  here  represents  a  cultivated  foreigner  as  spending 
some  time  in  England  in  the  latter  part  of  1776,  and  as 
giving  to  a  friend  in  his  own  country  a  cool  but  very 
satirical  analysis  of  the  alleged  vices,  foibles,  and  ab 
surdities  of  the  English  people,  and  of  the  weak  and 
wrong  things  in  their  treatment  of  their  late  colonists  in 
America.  From  these  character-sketches  by  the  supposed 
foreigner  in  London  in  the  year  1776 — themselves  by  no 
means  despicable  for  neat  workmanship  and  for  humor 
ous  power — it  is  not  difficult  to  make  out  just  how 
Hopkinson's  playful  writings  were  adapted  to  the  achieve 
ment  of  serious  political  results,  as  ridding  colonial- 
minded  Americans  of  the  intellectual  restraint  imposed 
almost  unconsciously  by  their  old  provincial  awe  of 
England,  and  helping  them  to  subject  the  metropolitan 
race  to  caustic  and  even  contemptuous  handling, 
as  a  necessary  condition  of  national  free-mindedness 


The  Revolutionary  Period  53 

and   of   bold   dissent   on  questions  of  political  authority 
and  control. 

The  expedition  of  the  year  1777,  under  the  command 
of  Sir  William  Howe,  resulted  in  considerable  tempo 
rary  disaster  to  the  American  cause.  Nevertheless,  it  was 
this  very  expedition,  so  full  of  prosperity  for  the  British, 
which  in  its  sequel  gave  to  Hopkinson  the  occasion  for 
his  most  succesful  stroke  as  a  humorous  writer.  Sir 
William,  having  gained  a  brief  succession  of  victories, 
finding  Philadelphia  an  agreeable  place  of  repose,  con 
cluded  to  settle  himself  down  in  that  city.  The  surround 
ing  inhabitants,  who  had  at  first  regarded  him  and  his 
army  with  no  little  terror,  soon  came  to  regard  both 
with  some  derision,  and  to  conceive  the  idea  of  practising 
upon  both  certain  experiments  which  had  in  them  an 
element  of  covert  mirthfulness,  as  it  were.  By  a  very 
imaginative  and  a  very  rollicking  expansion  of  the  actual 
facts  of  this  small  affair,  Hopkinson  was  enabled  to  com 
pose  his  celebrated  ballad,  The  Battle  of  the  Kegs. 
The  actual  facts  of  the  case  are  as  follows,  according  to 
his  own  later  testimony  in  prose:  "Certain  machines,  in 
the  form  of  kegs,  charged  with  gunpowder,  were  sent 
down  the  river  to  annoy  the  British  shipping  at  Phila 
delphia.  The  danger  of  these  machines  being  discovered, 
the  British  manned  the  wharfs  and  shipping,  and  dis 
charged  their  small  arms  and  cannons  at  everything  they 
saw  floating  in  the  river  during  the  ebb  tide."  This  jin 
gling  little  story  of  The  Battle  of  the  Kegs — mere  dog 
gerel  though  it  is — flew  from  colony  to  colony,  and  gave 
the  weary  and  anxious  people  the  luxury  of  genuine  and 
hearty  laughter  in  very  scorn  of  the  enemy.  To  the  cause 
of  the  Revolution,  it  was  perhaps  worth  as  much,  just  then, 
by  way  of  emotional  tonic  and  of  military  inspiration, 
as  the  winning  of  a  considerable  battle  would  have  been. 
From  a  literary  point  of  view,  The  Battle  of  the  Kegs 
is  very  far  from  being  the  best  of  Hopkinson 's  writings. 


54       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Nevertheless,  for  its  matter  and  its  manner  and  for  the 
adaptation  of  both  to  the  immediate  enjoyment  of  the 
multitude  of  readers,  it  became  in  his  own  day  the  best 
known  of  all  its  author's  productions,  even  as,  since  then, 
it  is  the  only  one  that  has  retained  any  general  remem 
brance  in  our  literature. 

Philip  Freneau. — The  work  of  Philip  Freneau  as  poet 
and  satirist  in  direct  contact  with  the  American  Revolu 
tion  was  broken  into  two  periods, — these  periods  being 
separated  from  each  other  by  an  interval  of  about  two 
years.  The  first  period  embraces  those  months  of  the  year 
1775  wherein  his  own  fierce  passions,  like  the  passions 
of  his  countrymen,  were  set  aflame  by  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities.  Thereafter  occurred  a  mysterious  lapse  in 
his  activity  as  a  writer  on  themes  connected  with  the 
great  struggle  to  which  he  had  professed  his  undying 
devotion; — he  was  absent  from  the  country  until  some 
time  in  the  year  1778.  With  the  middle  of  the  year  1778 
began  the  second  period  of  his  work  as  Revolutionary 
poet  and  satirist,  and  it  did  not  come  to  an  end,  except 
with  the  end  of  the  Revolution  itself. 

After  a  considerate  inspection  of  the  writers  and  the 
writings  of  our  Revolutionary  era,  it  is  likely  that  most 
readers  will  be  inclined  to  name  Philip  Freneau  as  the 
one  American  poet  of  all  that  time  who,  though  fallen  on 
evil  days  and  driven  from  his  true  course  somewhat  by 
stormy  weather,  yet  had  a  high  and  questionless  vocation 
for  poetry.  Of  his  own  claim  to  recognition  he  was  proudly 
conscious.  Nor  was  he  unconscious  of  all  that  was  malign 
to  his  poetic  destiny,  both  in  the  time  and  in  the  place  on 
which  his  lot  was  cast.  Even  in  the  larger  relations  which 
an  American  poet  in  the  eighteenth  century  might  hold 
to  the  development  of  English  poetry  everywhere,  Freneau 
did  some  work,  both  early  and  late,  so  fresh,  so  original, 
so  unhackneyed,  so  defiant  of  the  traditions  that  then 


The  Revolutionary  Period  55 

hampered  and  deadened  English  verse,  so  delightful  in 
its  fearless  appropriation  of  common  things  for  the  divine 
service  of  poetry,  as  to  entitle  him  to  be  called  a  pioneer 
of  the  new  poetic  age  that  was  then  breaking  upon  the 
world,  and  therefore  to  be  classed  with  Cowper,  Burns, 
Wordsworth,  and  their  mighty  comrades, — those  poetic 
iconoclasts  who,  entering  the  temple  of  eighteenth-century 
English  verse,  broke  up  its  wooden  idols,  rejected  its 
conventionalised  diction,  and  silenced  for  ever  its  pompous, 
monotonous,  and  insincere  tune.  Finally,  of  Freneau, 
it  remains  to  be  said  that,  in  a  certain  eminent  sense,  he 
was  the  first  American  poet  of  Democracy;  and  that 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  career,  and  in 
spite  of  every  form  of  temptation,  he  remained  true — 
fiercely,  savagely  true — to  the  conviction  that  his  part 
and  lot  in  the  world  was  to  be  a  protagonist  on  behalf  of 
mere  human  nature,  as  against  all  its  assailants  whether 
in  church  or  state.  In  the  year  1795,  this  combat-loving 
poet  sent  forth  a  second  and  an  enlarged  edition  of  his 
poems,  which  had  been  first  issued  seven  years  before; 
and  in  some  verses  which  he  therein  inserted,  entitled 
"  To  my  Book,"  one  may  still  hear  the  proud  voice  with 
which  he  claimed  for  himself  that,  whether  in  other  ways 
successful  or  not,  he  was  at  least  a  poet  militant — ever 
doing  battle  on  the  people's  side. 

John  Trumbull. — John  Trumbull,  with  an  inward  vo 
cation  for  a  life  of  letters,  turned  away  to  a  calling  far 
more  likely  to  supply  him  with  bread — the  profession 
of  the  law.  It  was  in  November,  1773,  that  he  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  bar  of  Connecticut.  Being  then  but  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  he  wrote  in  verse  an  eternal  farewell 
to  verse-making.  Notwithstanding  all  his  vows  of  devo 
tion  to  the  new  mistress  whom  he  was  to  serve,  Trumbull 
could  not  forget  his  earlier  love.  Henceforward,  all  his  fine 
literary  accomplishments,  his  subtlety,  his  wit,  his  gift  for 


56       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

ridicule,  his  training  in  satire,  are  to  be  at  the  service  of 
the  popular  cause,  and  are  to  produce  in  M'Fingal 
one  of  the  world's  masterpieces  in  political  badinage.  The 
time  of  the  poem  is  shortly  after  April,  1775.  The  scene 
is  laid  in  a  certain  unnamed  New  England  town,  appar 
ently  not  far  from  Boston.  No  literary  production  was 
ever  a  more  genuine  embodiment  of  the  spirit  and  life  of  a 
people,  in  the  midst  of  a  stirring  and  world-famous  con 
flict,  than  is  M'Fingal  an  embodiment  of  the  spirit  and 
life  of  the  American  people,  in  the  midst  of  that  stupendous 
conflict  which  formed  our  great  epoch  of  national  deliver 
ance.  Here  we  find  presented  to  us,  with  the  vividness 
of  a  contemporary  experience,  the  very  issues  which  then 
divided  friends  and  families  and  neighbourhood,  as  they  did 
entire  colonies,  and  at  last  the  empire  itself;  the  very 
persons  and  passions  of  the  opposing  parties;  the  very 
spirit  and  accent  and  method  of  political  controversy  at 
that  time;  and  at  last,  those  riotous  frolics  and  that 
hilarious  lawlessness  with  which  the  Revolutionary  patriots 
were  fond  of  demonstrating  their  disapproval  of  the  poli 
tics  of  their  antagonists. 

Satire  is,  of  course,  one  of  the  less  noble  forms  of  liter 
ary  expression;  and  in  satire  uttering  itself  through 
burlesque,  there  is  special  danger  of  the  presence  of  quali 
ties  which  are  positively  ignoble.  Yet  never  was  satire 
employed  in  a  better  cause,  or  for  loftier  objects,  or  in  a 
more  disinterested  spirit.  The  author  of  M'Fingal  wrote 
his  satire  under  no  personal  or  petty  motive.  His  poem 
was  a  terrific  assault  on  men  who,  in  his  opinion,  were 
the  public  enemies  of  his  country;  and  he  did  not  delay 
that  assault  until  they  were  unable  to  strike  back. 
M'Fingal  belongs,  indeed,  to  a  type  of  literature  hard, 
bitter,  vengeful,  often  undignified;  but  the  hardness  of 
M'Fingal,  its  bitterness,  its  vengeful  force  are  directed 
against  persons  believed  by  its  author  to  be  the  foes — the 
fashionable  and  the  powerful  foes — of  human  liberty;  if 


The  Revolutionary  Period  57 

at  times  it  surrenders  its  own  dignity,  it  does  so  on  behalf 
of  the  greater  dignity  of  human  nature.  That  M'Fingal 
is,  in  its  own  sphere,  a  masterpiece,  that  it  has  within 
itself  a  sort  of  power  never  attaching  to  a  mere  imitation, 
is  shown  by  the  vast  and  prolonged  impression  it  has 
made  upon  the  American  people.  Immediately  upon  its 
first  publication,  it  perfectly  seized  and  held  the  attention 
of  the  public.  It  was  everywhere  read.  Probably  as 
many  as  forty  editions  of  it  have  been  issued  in  this  coun 
try  and  in  England.  It  was  one  of  the  forces  which  drove 
forward  that  enormous  movement  of  human  thought 
and  passion  which  we  describe  as  the  American  Revolu 
tion;  and  in  each  of  the  great  agitations  of  American 
thought  and  passion  which  have  occurred  since  that  time, 
occasioned  by  the  French  Revolution,  by  the  War  of  1812, 
and  by  the  war  which  extinguished  American  slavery,  this 
scorching  satire  against  social  reaction,  this  jeering  bur 
lesque  on  political  obstructiveness,  has  been  sent  forth 
again  and  again  into  the  world,  to  renew  its  mirthful  and 
scornful  activity  in  the  ever-renewing  battle  for  human 
progress. 

John  Dickinson. — Among  all  the  political  writings 
which  were  the  immediate  offspring  of  the  baleful  Stamp 
Act  dispute,  there  stand  out,  as  of  the  highest  significance, 
certain  essays  which  began  to  make  their  appearance  in 
a  Philadelphia  newspaper  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
1767.  These  essays  very  soon  became  celebrated,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  under  the  short  title  of  the 
Farmer's  Letters.  Their  full  title  was  Letters  from  a 
Farmer  in  Pennsylvania  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  British 
Colonies.  Though  published  without  the  author's  name, 
they  were  instantly  recognised  as  the  work  of  John  Dickin 
son  ;  and  their  appearance  may  perhaps  fairly  be  described 
as  constituting,  upon  the  whole,  the  most  brilliant  event 
in  the  literary  history  of  the  Revolution.  One  distinction 


58       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

attaching  to  them  is  that  they  were  written  by  a  man  who 
shared  in  the  general  excitement  over  the  new  attack 
upon  colonial  rights,  but  who  desired  to  compose  it  rather 
than  to  increase  it,  and  especially  to  persuade  his  country 
men  so  to  bear  their  part  in  the  new  dispute  as  to  save 
their  rights  as  men,  without  losing  their  happiness  as 
British  subjects.  Here  was  a  man  of  powerful  and  cul 
tivated  intellect,  with  all  his  interests  and  all  his  tastes 
on  the  side  of  order,  conservatism,  and  peace,  if  only  with 
these  could  be  had  political  safety  and  honour.  No  other 
serious  political  essays  of  the  Revolutionary  era  quite 
equalled  the  Farmer's  Letters  in  literary  merit,  including 
in  that  term  the  merit  of  substance  as  well  as  of  form; 
and,  excepting  the  political  essays  of  Thomas  Paine,  which 
did  not  begin  to  appear  until  nine  years  later,  none  equalled 
the  Farmer's  Letters  in  immediate  celebrity,  and  in 
direct  power  upon  events.  As  they  first  came  forth,  from 
week  to  week,  in  the  Philadelphia  newspaper  that  originally 
published  them,  they  were  welcomed  by  the  delighted 
interest  and  sympathy  of  multitudes  of  readers  in  that 
neighbourhood,  and  were  instantly  reproduced  in  all  the 
twenty-five  newspapers  then  published  in  America,  with 
but  four  known  exceptions.  Within  less  than  four  weeks 
after  the  last  letter  had  made  its  appearance,  they  were 
all  collected  and  issued  as  a  pamphlet,  of  which  at  least 
eight  editions  were  published  in  different  parts  of  America. 
On  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  the  Farmer's  Letters 
gained  universal  attention  among  the  people  interested  in 
the  rising  American  dispute.  The  name  of  John  Dickin 
son  became  a  name  of  literary  renown  surpassing  that  of 
any  other  American,  excepting  Benjamin  Franklin.  On 
the  continent  of  Europe,  these  essays  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Farmer  became,  for  a  time,  the  fashion:  they  were  talked 
of  in  the  salons  of  Paris;  the  Farmer  himself  was  likened 
to  Cicero ;  and  almost  the  highest  distinction  then  possible 
for  any  man  was  bestowed  upon  him  through  the  notice 


The  Revolutionary  Period  59 

and  applause  of  Voltaire.  Even  in  England,  the  success 
of  these  writings  was  remarkable,  and  was  shown  quite 
as  much  in  the  censures  as  in  the  praises  which  were 
lavished  upon  them.  Among  the  English  admirers  of  the 
Farmer's  Letters  was  Edmund  Burke,  who  gave  his 
sanction  to  their  principle.  In  America,  the  admiration 
and  the  gratitude  of  the  people  were  expressed  in  almost 
every  conceivable  form.  Thanks  were  voted  to  the  Farmer 
by  political  associations,  by  town-meetings,  by  grand  juries. 
The  College  of  New  Jersey  conferred  on  him  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Laws.  He  became  the  favourite  toast  at  public 
banquets.  He  was  offered  the  membership  of  the  choicest 
social  clubs.  On  his  entrance,  one  day,  into  a  court-room, 
whither  business  called  him,  the  proceedings  were  stopped 
in  order  to  recognise  his  presence,  and  to  make  acknow 
ledgment  of  the  greatness  and  splendour  of  his  services  to 
the  country.  Songs  were  written  in  his  praise. 

The  last  of  the  Farmer's  Letters  was  published  in 
February,  1768.  In  the  following  May,  the  new  com 
missioners  of  customs  arrived  at  Boston;  in  June,  these 
commissioners,  attempting  to  execute  their  odious  office 
on  John  Hancock's  sloop,  Liberty,  were  fiercely  assaulted 
by  the  populace  of  Boston,  and  were  driven  for  refuge  to 
Castle  William  in  Boston  Harbour;  whereupon  Governor 
Bernard  summoned  thither  General  Gage  with  his  troops 
from  Halifax.  Of  these  most  ominous  events  in  Boston, 
John  Dickinson  was  an  observer  from  his  distant  home  on 
the  Delaware;  and  even  he,  with  all  his  deep  loyalty  and 
conscientious  hesitation,  was  so  stirred  by  them  as  then  to 
utter  what  seems  almost  a  ringing  war-cry.  Taking  for 
his  model  Garrick's  Hearts  of  Oak — the  air  of  which 
was  then  so  familiar  to  every  one — he  wrote  the  stanzas 
which  he  christened  A  Song  for  American  Freedom, — a 
bit  of  versification  obviously  the  work  of  a  man  neither 
born  nor  bred  to  that  business ;  yet  being  quickly  caught 
up  into  universal  favour  under  the  endearing  name  of  the 


60       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Liberty  Song,  its  manly  lines  soon  resounded  over  all 
the  land;  and  thenceforward,  for  several  years,  it  re 
mained  the  most  popular  political  song  among  us. 

If  we  attempt  to  estimate  the  practical  effects  of  John 
Dickinson's  work  as  a  political  writer  during  the  American 
Revolution,  we  shall  find  it  not  easy  to  disentangle  and  to 
separate  them  from  the  practical  effects  of  his  work  as 
a  politician.  The  two  lines  of  power  were  closely  inter 
woven;  each,  in  the  main,  helped  the  other,  as  each  was 
liable,  in  its  turn,  to  be  hindered  by  the  other.  At  any 
rate,  just  as  the  politico-literary  influence  of  James  Otis 
was,  upon  the  whole,  predominant  in  America  from  1764 
until  1767,  so,  from  the  latter  date  until  some  months 
after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  1775,  was  the  po 
litico-literary  influence  of  John  Dickinson  predominant 
here.  Moreover,  as  he  succeeded  to  James  Otis  in  the  de 
velopment  of  Revolutionary  thought,  so  was  he,  at  last, 
succeeded  by  Thomas  Paine,  who  held  sway  among  us,  as 
the  chief  writer  of  political  essays,  from  the  early  part  of 
1776  until  the  close  of  the  Revolution  itself.  The  pro 
digious  decline  in  the  influence  of  John  Dickinson,  at  the 
approach  of  the  issue  of  independence,  is  a  thing  not 
hard  to  explain;  it  was  due  in  part  to  his  personal  char 
acteristics,  in  part  to  the  nature  of  his  opinions.  From 
the  beginning  of  the  troubles  until  some  months  after  the 
first  shedding  of  blood,  in  1775,  public  opinion  in  America 
had  set  strongly  in  favour  of  making  demand — even  armed 
demand — for  our  political  rights,  but  without  any  rupture 
of  the  colonial  tie.  It  was,  therefore,  a  period  calling  for 
clear  and  resolute  statements  of  our  claims,  but  with  loyalty, 
urbanity,  and  tact.  To  be  the  chief  literary  exponent 
of  such  a  period,  John  Dickinson  was  in  every  way  fitted 
by  talent,  by  temperament,  by  training.  A  man  of  wealth, 
cultivation,  and  elegant  surroundings,  practically  versed 
in  the  law  and  in  politics,  considerate,  cautious,  disin 
clined  to  violent  measures  and  to  stormy  scenes,  actuated 


The  Revolutionary  Period  61 

by  a  passion  for  the  unity  and  the  greatness  of  the  English 
race  and  for  peace  among  all  men,  it  was  his  sincere  desire 
that  the  dispute  with  the  mother  country  should  be  so 
conducted  as  to  end,  at  last,  in  the  perfect  establishment 
of  American  constitutional  rights  within  the  empire, 
but  without  any  hurt  or  dishonour  to  England,  and  without 
any  permanent  failure  in  respect  and  kindness  between 
her  and  ourselves.  Nevertheless,  in  1775,  events  occurred 
which  gave  a  different  aspect  to  the  whole  dispute,  and 
swept  an  apparent  majority  of  the  American  people  quite 
beyond  the  sphere  of  such  ideas  and  methods.  John 
Dickinson's  concession  to  Parliament  of  a  legislative 
authority  over  us,  even  to  a  limited  extent,  was  roughly 
discarded;  instead  of  which  was  enthroned  among  us  the 
unhistoric  and  makeshift  doctrine  that  American  allegiance 
was  due  not  at  all  to  Parliament,  but  to  the  Crown  only. 
Moreover,  the  moderation  of  tone,  the  urbane  speech,  the 
civility  in  conduct,  exemplified  by  Dickinson  in  all  this 
dispute  with  England,  then  became  an  anachronism  and 
an  offence.  We  were  plunged  at  last  into  civil  war — we 
had  actually  reached  the  stage  of  revolution;  and  the 
robust  men  who  then  ruled  the  scene  were  disposed,  with 
no  little  contempt,  to  brush  aside  the  moderate,  conserva 
tive,  and  courteous  Dickinson,  who,  either  for  advice  or 
for  conduct,  seemed  to  them  to  have  no  further  function 
to  perform  in  the  American  world.  His  Farmer's  Letters 
were  declared  by  Jefferson  to  have  been  " really  an  'ignis 
fatuus,'  misleading  us  from  true  principles."  Even  Edward 
Rutledge,  who,  in  June,  1776,  agreed  with  Dickinson  in 
his  opposition  to  the  plan  for  independence,  nevertheless 
expressed  some  impatience  with  his  intellectual  fastidious 
ness  and  nicety, — declaring  that  the  "vice  of  all  his  pro 
ductions,  to  a  considerable  degree,"  was  "the  vice  of 
refining  too  much." 

Alexander  Hamilton. — Within  two  or  three  wee.ks  from 


62       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

the  day  on  which  the  Congress  announced  its  grand  scheme 
for  an  agreement  among  the  American  colonists  not  to 
import  or  to  consume  the  chief  materials  of  the  English 
carrying-trade,  nor  to  export  the  chief  products  of  their 
own  farms,  there  came  from  the  press  of  New  York  a 
pamphlet — Free  Thoughts  on  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Continental  Congress — ostensibly  written  by  a  farmer, 
and  addressed  to  farmers,  and  from  the  level  of  their 
particular  interests  subjecting  the  proposal  of  Congress  to 
a  sort  of  criticism  that  was  well  fitted  to  arouse  against  it 
the  bitterest  and  most  unrelenting  opposition  of  the  great 
agricultural  class.  The  writer  of  this  pamphlet — Samuel 
Seabury,  a  Loyalist  clergyman — professed  to  be  a  "  West- 
chester  Farmer," — a  signature  which  at  once  became  the 
target  for  vast  applause  and  for  vast  execration.  The 
first  pamphlet  was  dated  November  16,  1774.  Twelve 
days  from  that  date  came  his  second  one — as  keen,  as 
fiery,  as  powerful  as  the  first.  In  less  than  four  weeks 
from  the  day  of  his  second  pamphlet,  the  undaunted 
farmer  was  ready  with  a  third  one.  No  sooner  was  this 
pamphlet  off  his  hands,  than  the  "Westchester  Farmer" 
seems  to  have  set  to  work  upon  his  fourth  pamphlet. 

Among  the  throng  of  replies  which  burst  forth  from  the 
press  in  opposition  to  the  tremendous  pamphlets  of  the 
"Westchester  Farmer,"  were  two  which  immediately  tow 
ered  into  chief  prominence:  A  Full  Vindication  of  the 
Measures  of  the  Congress,  and  The  Farmer  Refuted. 
The  extraordinary  ability  of  these  two  pamphlets — their 
fulness  in  constitutional  learning,  their  acumen,  their 
affluence  in  statement,  their  cleverness  in  controver 
sial  repartee,  their  apparent  wealth  in  the  fruits  of  an 
actual  acquaintance  with  public  business — led  both  the 
"Westchester  Farmer"  and  the  public  in  general  to  at 
tribute  tnem  to  some  American  writer  of  mature  years 
and  of  ripe  experience — to  some  member  of  the  late 
Congress,  for  example — particularly  to  John  Jay  or  to 


The  Revolutionary  Period  63 

William  Livingston.  It  is  not  easy  to  overstate  the  astonish 
ment  and  the  incredulity  with  which  the  public  soon 
heard  the  rumour  that  these  elaborate  and  shattering 
literary  assaults  on  the  argumentative  position  of  the 
Loyalists  were,  in  reality,  the  work  of  a  writer  who  was 
then  both  a  stripling  in  years  and  a  stranger  in  the  country 
— one  Alexander  Hamilton,  a  West  Indian  by  birth, 
a  Franco-Scotsman  by  parentage,  an  undergraduate  of 
King's  College  by  occupation,  a  resident  within  the  Thir 
teen  Colonies  but  little  more  than  two  years,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  publication  of  his  first  pamphlet  only  seven 
teen  years  of  age.  In  the  exposition  of  his  views  touching 
the  several  vast  fields  of  thought  here  brought  under 
consideration, — constitutional  law,  municipal  law,  the 
long  line  of  colonial  charters,  colonial  laws  and  precedents, 
international  polity  as  affecting  the  chief  nations  of 
Christendom,  justice  in  the  abstract  and  justice  in  the 
concrete,  human  rights  both  natural  and  conventional,  the 
physical  and  metaphysical  conditions  underlying  the  great 
conflict  then  impending, — it  must  be  confessed  that  this 
beardless  philosopher,  this  statesman  not  yet  out  of  school, 
this  military  strategist  scarcely  rid  of  his  roundabout, 
exhibits  a  range  and  precision  of  knowledge,  a  ripeness 
of  judgment,  a  serenity,  a  justice,  a  massiveness  both  of 
thought  and  of  style,  which  would  perhaps  make  in 
credible  the  theory  of  his  authorship  of  these  pamphlets, 
were  not  this  theory  confirmed  by  his  undoubted  exhibi 
tion  in  other  ways,  at  about  the  same  period  of  his  life,  of 
the  same  astonishing  qualities. 

Thomas  Paine. — As  the  bitter  events  of  1775  rapidly 
unfolded  themselves,  not  a  few  Americans  became  con 
vinced  that  there  was  no  true  solution  of  the  trouble  ex 
cept  in  that  very  independence  which  they  had  but  a 
short  time  before  dreaded  and  denounced.  Of  such 
Americans,  Thomas  Paine  was  one;  and  towards  the  end 


64       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

of  the  year,  through  incessant  communication  with  the 
foremost  minds  in  America,  he  had  rilled  his  own  mind 
with  the  great  decisive  elements  of  the  case,  and  was 
prepared  to  utter  his  thought  thereon.  Early  in  January, 
1776,  he  did  utter  it,  in  the  form  of  a  pamphlet,  published 
at  Philadelphia,  and  entitled  Common  Sense, — the 
first  open  and  unqualified  argument  in  championship  of 
the  doctrine  of  American  independence.  During  the 
first  ten  or  twelve  years  of  the  Revolution,  in  just  one 
sentiment  all  persons,  Tories  and  Whigs,  seemed  perfectly 
to  agree;  namely,  in  abhorrence  of  the  project  of  separa 
tion  from  the  empire.  Suddenly,  however,  and  within  a 
period  of  less  than  six  months,  the  majority  of  the  Whigs 
turned  completely  around,  and  openly  declared  for  inde 
pendence,  which,  before  that  time,  they  had  so  vehemently 
repudiated.  Among  the  facts  necessary  to  enable  us  to 
account  for  this  almost  unrivalled  political  somersault,  is 
that  of  the  appearance  of  Common  Sense.  This  pamph 
let  was  happily  named:  it  undertook  to  apply  common 
sense  to  a  technical,  complex,  but  most  urgent  and  feverish, 
problem  of  constitutional  law.  In  fact,  on  any  other 
ground  than  that  of  common  sense,  the  author  of  that 
pamphlet  was  incompetent  to  deal  with  the  problem  at 
all;  since  of  law,  of  political  science,  and  even  of  English 
and  American  history,  he  was  ludicrously  ignorant.  But 
for  the  effective  treatment  of  any  question  whatsoever  that 
was  capable  of  being  dealt  with  under  the  light  of  the 
broad  and  rugged  intellectual  instincts  of  mankind, — 
man's  natural  sense  of  truth,  of  congruity,  of  fair-play, — 
perhaps  no  other  man  in  America,  excepting  Franklin, 
was  a  match  for  this  ill-taught,  heady,  and  slashing 
English  stranger.  From  the  tribunal  of  technical  law, 
therefore,  he  carried  the  case  to  the  tribunal  of  common 
sense ;  and  in  his  plea  before  that  tribunal,  he  never  for  a 
moment  missed  his  point,  or  forgot  his  method.  The  one 
thing  just  then  to  be  done  was  to  convince  the  average 


The  Revolutionary  Period  65 

American  colonist  of  the  period  that  it  would  be  ridiculous 
for  him  any  longer  to  remain  an  American  colonist ;  that 
the  time  had  come  for  him  to  be  an  American  citizen; 
that  nothing  stood  in  the  way  of  his  being  so,  but  the 
trash  of  a  few  pedants  respecting  the  authority  of  certain 
bedizened  animals  called  kings;  and  that,  whether  he 
would  or  no,  the  alternative  was  at  last  thrust  into  his 
face  upon  the  point  of  a  bayonet, — either  to  declare  for 
national  independence,  and  a  wide-spaced  and  resplendent 
national  destiny,  or  to  accept,  along  with  subserviency 
to  England,  the  bitterness  and  the  infamy  of  national 
annihilation.  With  all  its  crudities  of  thought,  its  super 
ficiality,  and  its  rashness  of  assertion,  Common  Sense 
is  a  masterly  pamphlet ;  for  in  the  elements  of  its  strength 
it  was  precisely  fitted  to  the  hour,  to  the  spot,  and  to  the 
passions  of  men.  Even  its  smattering  of  historical  lore, 
and  its  cheap  display  of  statistics,  and  its  clumsy  attempts 
at  some  sort  of  political  philosophy,  did  not  diminish  the 
homage  with  which  it  was  read  by  the  mass  of  the  com 
munity,  who  were  even  less  learned  and  less  philosophical 
than  Paine,  and  who,  at  any  rate,  cared  much  more  just 
then  for  their  imperilled  rights,  than  they  did  either  for 
philosophy  or  for  learning.  The  immediate  practical 
effects  of  this  pamphlet  in  America,  and  the  celebrity 
which  it  soon  acquired  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  America, 
are  a  significant  part  of  its  history  as  a  potential  literary 
document  of  the  period.  In  every  impassioned  popular 
discussion  there  is  likely  to  spring  up  a  leader,  who  with 
pen  or  voice  strikes  in,  at  just  the  right  moment,  with 
just  the  right  word,  so  skilfully,  so  powerfully,  that  thence 
forward  the  intellectual  battle  seems  to  be  raging  and 
surging  around  him  and  around  the  fiery  word  which  he 
has  sent  shrilling  through  the  air.  So  far  as  the  popular 
discussion  of  American  independence  is  concerned,  pre 
cisely  this  was  the  case,  between  January  and  July,  1776, 
with  Thomas  Paine  and  his  pamphlet  Common  Sense. 


66        A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

Within  three  months  from  the  date  of  its  first  issue,  at 
least  120,000  copies  of  it  were  sold  in  America  alone. 
By  that  time,  the  pamphlet  seemed  to  be  in  every  one's 
hand  and  the  theme  of  every  one's  talk. 

Noble-minded  and  important  as  were  the  various 
services  rendered  by  Paine  to  the  American  cause,  on 
sea  and  land,  in  office  and  field,  they  could  in  no  way  be 
compared,  as  contributions  to  the  success  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  with  the  work  which  he  did  during  those  same  im 
perilled  years  merely  as  a  writer,  and  especially  as  the 
writer  of  The  Crisis.  Between  December,  1776,  when  the 
first  pamphlet  of  that  series  was  published,  down  to 
December,  1783,  when  the  last  one  left  the  printer's  hands, 
this  indomitable  man  produced  no  less  than  sixteen 
pamphlets  under  the  same  general  title,  adapting  his 
message  in  each  case  to  the  supreme  need  of  the  hour, 
and  accomplishing  all  this  literary  labour  in  a  condition 
of  actual  poverty. 

Thomas  Jefferson. — On  June  21,  1775,  Thomas  Jefferson 
took  his  seat  for  the  first  time  as  a  member  of  the  Con 
tinental  Congress.  He  had  then  but  recently  passed  his 
thirty-second  birthday,  and  was  known  to  be  the  author 
of  two  or  three  public  papers  of  considerable  note.  Early 
in  June,  1776,  Thomas  Jefferson,  receiving  the  largest 
number  of  votes,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  committee 
of  illustrious  men  to  whom  was  assigned  the  task  of  pre 
paring  a  suitable  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  thereby 
he  became  the  draftsman  of  the  one  American  state  paper 
that  has  reached  to  supreme  distinction  in  the  world,  and 
that  seems  likely  to  last  as  long  as  American  civilisation 
lasts.  Whatever  authority  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
has  acquired  in  the  world  has  been  due  to  no  lack  of  criti 
cism,  either  at  the  time  of  its  first  appearance  or  since 
then, — a  fact  which  seems  to  tell  in  favour  of  its  essential 
worth  and  strength.  From  the  date  of  its  original  pub- 


The  Revolutionary  Period  67 

lication  down  to  the  present  moment,  it  has  been  attacked 
again  and  again,  either  in  anger  or  in  contempt,  by  friends 
as  well  as  by  enemies  of  the  American  Revolution,  by 
liberals  in  politics  as  well  as  by  conservatives.  It  has 
been  censured  for  its  substance,  it  has  been  censured  for 
its  form;  for  its  misstatements  of  fact,  for  its  fallacies  in 
reasoning,  for  its  audacious  novelties  and  paradoxes,  for  its 
total  lack  of  all  novelty,  for  its  repetition  of  old  and  thread 
bare  statements,  even  for  its  downright  plagiarisms; 
finally,  for  its  grandiose  and  vapouring  style.  Yet,  prob 
ably  no  public  paper  ever  more  perfectly  satisfied  the 
immediate  purposes  for  which  it  was  sent  forth.  From 
one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  and  as  far  as  it  could  be 
spread  among  the  people,  it  was  greeted  in  public  and  in 
private  with  every  demonstration  of  approval  and  de 
light.  To  a  marvellous  degree,  it  quickened  the  friends  of 
the  Revolution  for  their  great  task.  Moreover,  during  the 
century  and  more  since  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  the 
influence  of  this  state  paper  on  the  political  character 
and  the  political  conduct  of  the  American  people  has  been 
great  beyond  all  calculation. 

No  man  can  adequately  explain  the  persistent  fascina 
tion  which  it  has  had,  and  which  it  still  has,  for  the  Ameri 
can  people,  or  for  its  un diminished  power  over  them,  without 
taking  into  account  its  extraordinary  literary  merits — 
its  possession  of  the  witchery  of  true  substance  wedded 
to  perfect  form: — its  massiveness  and  incisiveness  of 
thought,  its  art  in  the  marshalling  of  the  topics  with  which 
it  deals,  its  symmetry,  its  energy,  the  definiteness  and 
limpidity  of  its  statements,  its  exquisite  diction,  at  once 
terse,  musical,  and  electric;  and,  as  an  essential  part  of 
this  literary  outfit,  many  of  those  spiritual  notes  which  can 
attract  and  enthrall  our  hearts, — veneration  for  God,  vener 
ation  for  man,  veneration  for  principle,  respect  for  public 
opinion,  moral  earnestness,  moral  courage,  optimism,  a 
stately  and  noble  pathos,  finally,  self-sacrificing  devotion 


68       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

to  a  cause  so  great  as  to  be  herein  identified  with  the 
happiness,  not  of  one  people  only,  or  of  one  race  only, 
but  of  human  nature  itself.  We  may  be  altogether  sure 
that  no  genuine  development  of  literary  taste  among  the 
American  people  in  any  period  of  our  future  history  can 
result  in  serious  misfortune  to  this  particular  specimen  of 
American  literature. 

Samuel  Adams. — Samuel  Adams  was  a  man  of  letters, 
but  he  was  so  only  because  he  was  above  all  things  a 
man  of  affairs.  Of  literary  art,  in  certain  forms,  he  was 
no  mean  master;  of  literary  art  for  art's  sake,  he  was 
entirely  regardless.  He  was  perhaps  the  most  voluminous 
political  writer  of  his  time  in  America,  and  the  most  in 
fluential  political  writer  of  his  time  in  New  England;  but 
everything  that  he  wrote  was  meant  for  a  definite  practical 
purpose,  and  nothing  that  he  wrote  seemed  to  have  had  any 
interest  for  him  aside  from  that  purpose.  Deep  as  is  the 
obscurity  which  has  fallen  upon  his  literary  services  in  the 
cause  of  the  Revolution,  the  fame  of  those  services  was, 
at  the  time  of  them,  almost  unrivalled  by  that  of  any 
other  writer,  at  least  in  the  colonies  east  of  the  Hudson 
River.  Born  in  Boston  in  1722,  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1740,  he  early  showed  an  invincible  passion  and  aptitude 
for  politics.  One  principal  instrument  by  means  of  which 
Samuel  Adams  so  greatly  moulded  public  opinion,  and 
shaped  political  and  even  military  procedure,  was  the  pen. 
Of  modern  politicians,  he  was  among  the  first  to  recognise 
the  power  of  public  opinion  in  directing  public  events,  and 
likewise  the  power  of  the  newspaper  in  directing  public 
opinion.  It  was,  therefore,  an  essential  part  of  his  method 
as  a  politician  to  acquire  and  to  exercise  the  art  of  literary 
statement  in  a  form  suited  to  that  particular  end.  He  had 
the  instinct  of  a  great  journalist,  and  of  a  great  journalist 
willing  to  screen  his  individuality  behind  his  journal.  In 
this  service,  it  was  not  Samuel  Adams  that  Samuel  Adams 


The  Revolutionary  Period  69 

cared  to  put  and  to  keep  before  the  public, — it  was  the 
ideas  of  Samuel  Adams.  Accordingly,  of  all  American 
writers  for  the  newspapers  between  the  years  1754  and 
1776,  he  was  perhaps  the  most  vigilant,  the  most  indus 
trious,  the  most  effective,  and  also  the  least  identified. 
Ever  ready  to  efface  himself  in  what  he  did,  he  realised 
that  the  innumerable  productions  of  his  pen  would  make 
their  way  to  a  far  wider  range  of  readers,  and  would  be 
all  the  more  influential,  if  they  seemed  to  be  the  work, 
not  of  one  writer,  but  of  many.  Therefore,  he  almost 
never  published  anything  under  his  own  name;  but, 
under  a  multitude  of  titular  disguises  which  no  man  has 
yet  been  able  to  number,  this  sleepless,  crafty,  protean 
politician,  for  nearly  a  third  of  a  century,  kept  flooding 
the  community  with  his  ideas,  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
essays  in  the  newspapers, — thereby  constantly  baffling  the 
enemies  of  the  Revolutionary  movement,  and  conducting 
his  followers  victoriously  through  those  battles  of  argument 
which  preceded  and  then  for  a  time  accompanied  the 
battles  of  arms.  In  the  long  line  of  his  state  papers — 
the  official  utterances  of  the  several  public  bodies  with 
which  he  was  connected  and  which  so  long  trusted  him 
as  their  most  deft  and  unerring  penman — one  may  now 
trace,  almost  without  a  break,  the  development  of  the 
ideas  and  the  measures  which  formed  the  Revolution.  If 
we  take  into  account  the  strain  of  thought  and  of  emotional 
energy  involved  in  all  these  years  of  fierce  political  con 
troversy  and  of  most  perilous  political  leadership,  we  shall 
hardly  fear  to  overestimate  the  resources  of  Samuel  Adams 
in  his  true  career  of  agitator  and  iconoclast; — especially 
the  elasticity,  the  toughness,  the  persistence  of  a  nature 
which  could,  in  addition  to  all  this,  undertake  and  carry 
through,  during  the  same  long  period,  all  the  work  he 
did  in  literary  polemics, — work  which  alone  might  seem 
enough  to  employ  and  tire  the  strength  even  of  a  strong 
man  who  had  nothing  else  to  do. 


70       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

The  traits  of  Samuel  Adams  the  writer  are  easily  de 
fined — for  they  are  likewise  the  traits  of  Samuel  Adams 
the  politician,  and  of  Samuel  Adams  the  man.  His  funda 
mental  rule  for  literary  warfare  was  this — "Keep  your 
enemy  in  the  wrong."  His  style,  then,  was  the  expression 
of  his  intellectual  wariness, — a  wariness  like  that  of  the 
scout  or  the  bushwhacker,  who  knows  that  behind  any 
tree  may  lurk  his  deadly  foe,  that  a  false  step  may  be  his 
ruin,  that  a  badly-aimed  shot  may  make  it  impossible  for 
him  ever  to  shoot  again.  Whether  in  oral  or  in  written 
speech  his  characteristics  were  the  same, — simplicity, 
acuteness,  logical  power,  and  strict  adaptation  of  means 
to  the  practical  end  in  view.  Nothing  was  for  effect — 
everything  was  for  effectiveness.  He  wrote  pure  English, 
and  in  a  style  severe,  felicitous,  pointed,  epigrammatic. 
Careful  as  to  facts,  disdainful  of  rhetorical  excesses,  espe 
cially  conscious  of  the  strategic  folly  involved  in  mere 
overstatement,  an  adept  at  implication  and  at  the  insinuat 
ing  light  stroke,  he  had  never  anything  to  take  back  or  to 
apologise  for.  In  the  wearisome  fondness  of  his  country 
for  Greek  and  Roman  analogies,  he  shared  to  the  full ;  and, 
in  a  less  degree,  in  its  passion  for  the  tags  and  gewgaws 
of  classical  quotation.  Of  course,  his  style  bears  the  noble 
impress  of  his  ceaseless  and  reverent  reading  of  the  English 
Bible.  To  a  mere  poet,  he  seldom  alludes.  Among  secular 
writers  of  modern  times,  his  days  and  nights  were  given, 
as  occasion  served,  to  Hooker,  Coke,  Grotius,  Locke,  Sid 
ney,  Vattel,  Montesquieu,  Blackstone,  and  Hume. 

John  Wither  spoon. — Although  John  Witherspoon  did  not 
come  to  America  until  the  year  1768, — after  he  had  him 
self  passed  the  middle  line  of  human  life, — yet  so  quickly 
did  he  then  enter  into  the  spirit  of  American  society,  so 
perfectly  did  he  identify  himself  with  its  nobler  moods  of 
discontent  and  aspiration,  so  powerfully  did  he  contribute 
by  speech  and  act  to  the  right  development  of  this  new 


The  Revolutionary  Period  71 

nation  out  of  the  old  cluster  of  dispersed  and  dependent 
communities,  that  it  would  be  altogether  futile  to  attempt 
to  frame  a  just  account  of  the  great  intellectual  move 
ments  of  our  Revolution  without  some  note  of  the  part 
played  in  it  by  this  eloquent,  wise,  and  efficient  Scots 
man — at  once  teacher,  preacher,  politician,  law-maker, 
and  philosopher,  upon  the  whole  not  undeserving  of  the 
praise  which  has  been  bestowed  upon  him  as  "one  of  the 
great  men  of  the  age  and  of  the  world."  Born  in  1722,  at 
the  age  of  forty-six  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  the  presi 
dency  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  At  the  time  of  his 
removal  to  America,  he  had  achieved  distinction  as  a 
preacher  and  an  ecclesiastical  leader.  Even  as  an  author, 
also,  he  had  become  well  known.  His  advent  to  the  col 
lege  over  which  he  was  to  preside  was  like  that  of  a  prince 
coming  to  his  throne.  The  powerful  influence  which, 
through  his  published  writings,  Witherspoon  exerted  upon 
the  course  of  Revolutionary  thought,  may  be  traced  in 
the  very  few  sermons  of  his  which  touch  upon  the  politi 
cal  problems  of  that  time,  in  various  Congressional  papers, 
and  especially  in  the  numerous  essays,  long  or  short, 
serious  or  mirthful,  which  he  gave  to  the  press  between 
the  years  1775  and  1783,  and  commonly  without  his 
name.  As  a  writer  of  political  and  miscellaneous  essays, 
it  is  probable  that  Witherspoon's  activity  was  far  greater 
than  can  now  be  ascertained;  but  his  hand  can  be  traced 
with  certainty  in  a  large  group  of  keen  and  sprightly 
productions  of  that  sort.  Of  all  these  writings,  the  chief 
note  is  that  of  a  virile  mind,  well-balanced,  well-trained, 
and  holding  itself  steadily  to  its  own  independent  con 
clusions, — in  short,  of  enlightened  and  imperturbable 
common  sense,  speaking  out  in  a  form  always  temperate 
and  lucid,  often  terse  and  epigrammatic. 

John  Woolman. — It  is  no  slight  distinction  attaching  to 
American  literature  for  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  that 


72       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

in  a  time  so  often  characterised  as  barren  of  important 
literary  achievement,  were  produced  two  of  the  most 
perfect  examples  of  autobiography  to  be  met  with  in  any 
literature.  One  of  these,  of  course,  is  Franklin's  Auto 
biography,  the  first,  the  largest,  and  the  best  part  of 
which  was  written  in  1771, — a  work  that  has  long  since 
taken  its  place  among  the  most  celebrated  and  most 
widely  read  of  modern  books.  Almost  at  the  very  time 
at  which  that  fascinating  story  was  begun,  the  other  great 
example  of  autobiography  in  our  Revolutionary  literature 
was  finished — The  Journal  of  John  Woolman,  a  book  which 
William  Ellery  Channing  long  afterward  described  as  "be 
yond  comparison  the  sweetest  and  purest  autobiography 
in  the  language."  It  is  a  notable  fact,  however,  that 
while  these  two  masterpieces  in  the  same  form  of  liter 
ature  are  products  of  the  same  period,  they  are,  in  re 
spect  of  personal  quality,  very  nearly  antipodal  to  each 
other;  for,  as  Franklin's  account  of  himself  delineates  a 
career  of  shrewd  and  somewhat  selfish  geniality,  of  un 
perturbed  carnal  content,  of  kindly  systematic  and  most 
successful  worldliness,  so  the  autobiography  of  Woolman 
sets  forth  a  career  which  turns  out  to  be  one  of  utter  un- 
worldliness,  of  entire  self-effacement,  all  in  obedience  to 
an  Unseen  Leadership,  and  in  meek  and  most  tender  de 
votion  to  the  happiness  of  others — especially  slaves,  poor 
toiling  white  people,  and  speechless  creatures  unable  to 
defend  themselves  against  the  inhumanity  of  man. 

John  Woolman,  who  was  of  a  spirit  so  unpresuming 
that  he  would  have  wondered  and  have  been  troubled  to 
be  told  that  any  writing  of  his  was  ever  to  be  dealt  with 
as  literature,  was  born  in  1720  in  Northampton,  New 
Jersey,  his  father  being  a  farmer,  and  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  Until  his  twenty-first  year,  he  lived  at  home 
with  his  parents,  and,  as  he  expressed  it,  "wrought  on  the 
plantation."  Having  reached  his  majority,  he  took  em 
ployment  in  the  neighbouring  village  of  Mount  Holly,  in  a 


The  Revolutionary  Period  73 

shop  for  general  merchandise.  In  this  occupation  he 
passed  several  years;  after  which  he  began  to  give  him 
self  almost  wholly  to  the  true  work  of  his  life — that  of  an 
apostle,  with  a  need  to  go  from  land  to  land  in  fulfilment 
of  his  apostleship,  and  able,  like  one  of  the  greatest  of  all 
apostles,  to  minister  to  his  own  necessities  by  the  labours 
of  a  lowly  trade.  For,  long  before  he  set  out  upon  these 
travels,  even  from  his  early  childhood,  he  had  entered,  as 
he  thought,  into  the  possession  of  certain  treasures  of  the 
spirit  which  he  could  not  hoard  up  for  himself  alone, — 
which,  if  he  could  but  share  them  with  others,  would  make 
others  rich  and  happy  beyond  desire  or  even  imagination. 
The  autobiography  of  John  Woolman  was  the  gradual 
and  secret  growth  of  many  years,  beginning  when  he  was 
of  the  age  of  thirty-six,  and  added  to  from  time  to  time 
until,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two,  being  in  the  city  of  York,  in 
England,  about  the  business  of  his  Master,  he  was  stricken 
down  of  the  smallpox,  whereof  he  died.  Besides  this 
story  of  his  life,  he  left  several  ethical  and  religious  essays. 
All  these  writings  are,  as  Whittier  has  said,  in  the  style  "of 
a  man  unlettered,  but  with  natural  refinement  and  delicate 
sense  of  fitness,  the  purity  of  whose  heart  enters  into  his 
language."  "The  secret  of  Woolman's  purity  of  style," 
said  Channing,  "is  that  his  eye  was  single,  and  that  con 
science  dictated  the  words."  There  is  about  John  Wool 
man's  writings  that  unconventionality  of  thought,  that 
charity  without  pretence,  that  saintliness  without  sanc 
timony  or  sourness,  that  delicacy,  that  untaught  beauty  of 
phrase,  by  which  we  are  helped  to  understand  the  ardour 
of  Charles  Lamb's  love  for  him,  as  uttered  in  his  impulsive 
exhortation  to  the  readers  of  the  Essays  of  Elia  :  "Get 
the  writings  of  John  Woolman  by  heart."  "  A  perfect  gem!" 
wrote  Henry  Crabb  Robinson,  in  1824,  of  Woolman's 
Journal,  which  Lamb  had  shortly  before  made  known 
to  him.  "His  is  a  'schone  Seele.'  An  illiterate  tailor,  he 
writes  in  a  style  of  the  most  exquisite  purity  and  grace. 


74       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

His  moral  qualities  are  transferred  to  his  writings."  Per 
haps,  after  all,  the  aroma  that  lingers  about  Woolman's 
words  is  best  described  by  Woolman's  true  spiritual  suc 
cessor  in  American  literature — Whittier — in  the  saying, 
that  he  who  reads  these  writings  becomes  sensible  "of  a 
sweetness  as  of  violets." 

Benjamin  Franklin. — For  the  period  of  the  Revolution 
the  writings  of  Franklin  fall  naturally  into  two  principal 
divisions — first,  those  connected  with  the  Revolutionary 
controversy,  and,  secondly,  those  almost  entirely  apart 
from  it.  Among  the  latter,  of  course,  are  to  be  reckoned 
his  numerous  papers  on  scientific  discoveries  and  mechanical 
inventions;  a  considerable  number  of  his  personal  letters 
— these  being,  perhaps,  the  wisest  and  wittiest  of  all  his 
writings;  many  short  sketches,  usually  playful  in  tone, 
often  in  the  form  of  apologues  or  parables;  finally,  the 
first,  and  the  best,  part  of  his  Autobiography,  which, 
during  the  hundred  years  succeeding  its  first  publication 
in  1791,  has  probably  been  the  most  widely  read  book  of 
its  class  in  any  language.  Here,  then,  as  a  product  of 
Franklin's  general  literary  activity  during  the  Revolutionary 
period,  is  a  considerable  body  of  literature  not  concerned 
in  the  strifes  of  that  bitter  time,  almost  faultless  in  form, 
and  so  pervaded  by  sense,  gaiety,  and  kindness,  as  to  be 
among  the  most  precious  and  most  delightful  of  the  intel 
lectual  treasures  of  mankind. 

In  Franklin's  literary  contributions  to  the  Revolutionary 
controversy  between  1763  and  1783,  we  find  that  his  re 
lation  to  that  controversy  had  two  strongly  contrasted 
phases:  first,  his  sincere  and  most  strenuous  desire  that 
the  dispute  should  not  pass  from  the  stage  of  words  to 
that  of  blows,  and  thence  to  a  struggle  for  American  se 
cession  from  the  empire;  and,  secondly,  after  the  stage  of 
blows  had  been  reached,  his  championship  of  American 
secession  through  war  as  the  only  safe  or  honourable  course 


The  Revolutionary  Period  75 

then  left  to  his  countrymen.  The  line  of  division  between 
these  two  phases  of  opinion  and  action  falls  across  the 
spring  and  early  summer  of  1775.  Prior  to  that  time,  all 
his  writings,  serious  or  jocose,  are  pervaded  by  the  one 
purpose  of  convincing  the  English  people  that  the  American 
policy  of  their  government  was  an  injustice  and  a  blunder, 
and  of  convincing  the  American  people  that  their  demand 
for  political  rights  would  certainly  be  satisfied,  if  persisted 
in  steadily  and  without  fear,  but  also  without  disloyalty 
and  without  unseemly  violence.  Subsequent  to  that  time, 
having  accepted  with  real  sorrow  the  alternative  of  war 
and  of  war  for  American  secession,  all  his  writings,  serious 
and  jocose,  are  pervaded  by  the  one  purpose  of  making 
that  war  a  successful  one, — a  result  to  which,  as  a  writer, 
he  could  best  contribute  by  such  appeals  to  public  opinion 
in  America  as  should  nourish  and  quicken  American  con 
fidence  in  their  own  cause,  and  by  such  appeals  to  public 
opinion  in  Europe  as  should  win  for  that  cause  its  moral 
and  even  its  physical  support.  For  reasons  that  must  be 
obvious,  his  general  literary  activity  was  far  greater  during 
the  first  phase  of  this  controversy  than  during  the  second. 

Probably  no  writer  ever  understood  better  than  he 
how  to  make  dull  subjects  lively,  and  how,  by  consequence, 
to  attract  readers  to  the  consideration  of  matters  in  them 
selves  unattractive.  As  he  well  knew,  the  European  public, 
whether  upon  the  Continent  or  in  Great  Britain,  were  not 
likely  to  give  their  days  and  nights  to  the  perusal  of  long 
and  solemn  dissertations  on  the  rights  and  wrongs  of  his 
countrymen  in  the  other  hemisphere.  Accordingly,  such 
dissertations  he  never  gave  them,  but,  upon  occasion,  brief 
and  pithy  and  apparently  casual  statements  of  the  Ameri 
can  case;  exposing,  also,  the  weak  points  of  the  case 
against  his  own,  by  means  of  anecdotes,  epigrams,  jeux- 
d'  esprit;  especially  contriving  to  throw  the  whole  argument 
into  some  sort  of  dramatic  form. 

Franklin's  favourite  weapon  in  political  controversy — a 


76       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

weapon  which,  perhaps,  no  other  writer  in  English  since 
Dean  Swift  has  handled  with  so  much  cleverness  and 
effect — was  that  of  satire  in  the  form  of  ludicrous  ana 
logue,  thereby  burlesquing  the  acts  and  pretensions  of  his 
adversary,  and  simply  overwhelming  him  with  ridicule. 
Moreover,  with  Franklin,  as  had  been  the  case  with  Dean 
Swift  before  him,  this  species  of  satire  took  a  form  at  once 
so  realistic  and  so  comically  apt,  as  to  result  in  several 
examples  of  brilliant  literary  hoaxing — a  result  which,  in 
the  controversy  then  going  on,  was  likely  to  be  beneficial 
to  the  solemn  and  self-satisfied  British  Philistine  of  the 
period,  since  it  compelled  him  for  once  to  do  a  little  thinking, 
and  also  to  stand  off  and  view  his  own  portrait  as  it  then 
appeared  to  other  people,  and  even  in  spite  of  himself 
to  laugh  at  his  own  portentous  and  costly  stupidity  in  the 
management  of  an  empire  that  seemed  already  grown 
too  big  for  him  to  take  proper  care  of.  As  Franklin  was 
by  far  the  greatest  man  of  letters  on  the  American  side  of 
the  Revolutionary  controversy,  so  a  most  luminous  and 
delightful  history  of  the  development  of  thought  and 
emotion  during  the  Revolution  might  be  composed,  by 
merely  bringing  together  detached  sayings  of  Franklin, 
humorous  and  serious,  just  as  these  fell  from  his  tongue 
or  pen  in  the  successive  stages  of  that  long  conflict:  it 
would  be  a  trail  of  light  across  a  sea  of  storm  and  gloom. 
Nevertheless,  not  by  illustrative  fragments  of  what  he 
wrote  or  said,  any  more  than  by  modern  descriptions, 
however  vivid,  can  an  adequate  idea  be  conveyed  of  the 
mass,  the  force,  the  variety,  the  ease,  the  charm,  of  his 
total  work  as  a  writer  during  those  twenty  tremendous 
years.  Undoubtedly,  his  vast  experience  in  affairs  and 
the  sobriety  produced  by  mere  official  responsibility  had 
the  effect  of  clarifying  and  solidifying  his  thought,  and  of 
giving  to  the  lightest  products  of  his  genius  a  sanity  and 
a  sureness  of  movement  which,  had  he  been  a  man  of 
letters  only,  they  could  hardly  have  had  in  so  high  a 


The  Revolutionary  Period  77 

degree.  It  is  only  by  a  continuous  reading  of  the  entire 
body  of  Franklin's  Revolutionary  writings ,  from  grave  to 
gay,  from  lively  to  severe,  that  any  one  can  know  how 
brilliant  was  his  wisdom,  or  how  wise  was  his  brilliancy, 
or  how  humane  and  gentle  and  helpful  were  both.  No 
one  who,  by  such  a  reading,  procures  for  himself  such  a 
pleasure  and  such  a  benefit,  will  be  likely  to  miss  the 
point  of  Sydney  Smith's  playful  menace  to  his  daughter, 
— "I  will  disinherit  you,  if  you  do  not  admire  everything 
written  by  Franklin." 

Thomas  Hutchinson. — Within  the  two  decades  of  the 
American  Revolution  are  to  be  found  two  distinct  ex 
pressions  of  the  historic  spirit  among  this  people.  In  the 
first  place,  from  a  consciousness  of  the  meaning  and  worth 
of  the  unique  social  experiments  then  already  made  by 
each  of  the  thirteen  little  republics,  came  the  impulse 
which  led  to  the  writing  of  their  local  history.  Afterward, 
from  a  similar  consciousness  of  the  meaning  and  worth  of 
the  immense  events  which  began  to  unfold  themselves  in 
the  collective  political  and  military  experience  of  these 
thirteen  little  republics,  then  rapidly  melting  together  into 
a  larger  national  life  under  the  fires  of  a  common  danger, 
came  the  impulse  which  led  to  the  writing  of  their  general 
history. 

Reaching  the  line  which  divides  colonial  themes  from 
those  of  the  Revolution,  we  confront  a  writer  who,  in  his 
capacity  as  historian,  not  only  towers  above  all  his  con 
temporaries,  but  deals  with  themes  which  are  both  colonial 
and  Revolutionary.  This  writer  is  the  man  so  famous  and 
so  hated  in  his  day  as  a  Loyalist  statesman  and  magistrate, 
Thomas  Hutchinson,  the  last  civilian  who  served  as  gover 
nor  of  Massachusetts  under  appointment  by  the  king. 
That  he  deserves  to  be  ranked  as,  upon  the  whole,  the 
ablest  historical  writer  produced  in  America  prior  to  the 
nineteenth  century,  there  is  now  substantial  agreement 


78       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

among  scholars.  In  writing  the  early  history  of  Massa 
chusetts,  Thomas  Hutchinson  was  in  effect  writing  the 
history  of  his  own  ancestors,  some  of  whom  had  been 
eminent,  some  of  whom  had  been  notorious,  in  the  colony 
almost  from  the  year  of  its  foundation.  He  was  born  in 
Boston  in  1711.  From  the  age  of  twenty-six  when  he 
was  elected  to  his  first  office,  until  the  age  of  sixty-three 
when  he  resigned  his  last  one,  he  was  kept  constantly  and 
conspicuously  in  the  public  service.  Before  the  outbreak 
of  the  great  controversy  between  the  colonies  and  the 
British  government,  no  other  man  in  America  had,  to  so 
high  a  degree  as  Hutchinson,  the  confidence  both  of  the 
British  government  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  his  own 
countrymen  on  the  other.  Had  his  advice  been  taken  in 
that  controversy  by  either  of  the  two  parties  who  had  so 
greatly  confided  in  him,  the  war  of  the  Revolution  would 
have  been  averted.  While  the  writing  of  history  was  for 
Hutchinson  but  the  recreation  and  by-play  of  a  life  im 
mersed  in  outward  business,  the  study  of  history  seems 
to  have  been  a  passion  with  him  almost  from  his  child 
hood.  It  should  be  added  that  Hutchinson  had  the  scien 
tific  idea  of  the  importance  of  primary  documents.  Through 
his  great  eminence  in  the  community,  and  through  his 
ceaseless  zeal  in  the  collection  of  such  documents,  he  was 
enabled  in  the  course  of  many  years  to  bring  together 
a  multitude  of  manuscript  materials  of  priceless  value 
touching  the  history  of  New  England.  With  such  materials 
at  his  command,  and  using  with  diligence  those  fragments 
of  time  which  his  unflagging  energy  enabled  him  to  pluck 
from  business  and  from  sleep,  he  was  ready,  in  July,  1764, 
amid  the  first  mutterings  of  that  political  storm  which  was 
to  play  havoc  with  these  peaceful  studies  and  to  shatter 
the  hopes  of  his  lifetime,  to  send  to  the  printer,  in  Boston, 
the  first  volume  of  The  History  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts 
Bay.  He  published  his  second  volume  in  the  early  summer 
pf  the  year  1767, — not  far  from  the  very  day  gn  which 


The  Revolutionary  Period  79 

Parliament,  by  the  passage  of  the  Townshend  Act,  perpe 
trated  the  ineffable  folly  of  plunging  the  empire  into  such 
tumults  as  led  to  its  disruption.  Notwithstanding  the 
lurid  and  bitter  incidents  amid  which  it  was  written,  the 
second  volume  of  Hutchinson's  history  of  Massachusetts, 
like  the  first  one,  has  the  tone  of  moderation  and  of  equa 
nimity  suggestive  of  a  philosopher  abstracted  from  outward 
cares,  and  devoted  to  the  disinterested  discovery  and 
exposition  of  the  truth. 

From  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the  second  instal 
ment  of  his  work,  sixty-one  years  were  to  elapse  before 
the  public  should  receive  ocular  evidence  that  the  author 
had  had  the  fortitude,  amid  the  calamities  which  over 
whelmed  his  later  years,  to  go  on  with  his  historical  labours, 
and  to  complete  a  third  and  final  volume,  telling  the  story 
of  Massachusetts  from  the  year  1750  until  the  year  1774 
— the  year  in  which  he  laid  down  his  office  as  governor 
and  departed  for  England.  Borne  down  with  sorrow, 
amazed  and  horror-stricken  at  the  fury  of  the  storm  that 
was  overturning  his  most  prudent  calculations,  and  was 
sweeping  him  and  his  party  from  all  their  moorings  out 
into  an  unknown  sea,  he  found  some  solace  in  resuming 
in  England  the  historical  task  which  he  had  left  unfinished. 
In  his  diary  for  October  22,  1778,  its  completion  is  recorded 
in  this  modest  note :  "I  finished  the  revisal  of  my  History, 
to  the  end  of  my  Administration,  and  laid  it  by."  Laid  by 
certainly  it  was,  and  not  until  the  year  1828  was  it  per 
mitted  to  come  forth  to  the  light  of  day,  and  then,  largely, 
through  the  magnanimous  intervention  of  a  group  of 
noble-minded  American  scholars  in  the  very  city  which, 
in  his  later  lifetime,  would  not  have  permitted  his  return 
to  it. 

A  great  historian  Hutchinson  certainly  was  not,  and, 
under  the  most  favourable  outward  conditions,  could  not 
have  been.  He  had  the  fundamental  virtues  of  a  great 
historian — love  of  truth,  love  of  justice,  diligence,  the 


8o       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

ability  to  master  details  and  to  narrate  them  with  ac 
curacy.  Even  in  the  exercise  of  these  fundamental  virtues, 
however,  no  historian  in  Hutchinson's  circumstances 
could  fail  to  be  hampered  by  the  enormous  preoccupation 
of  official  business,  or  to  have  his  judgment  warped  and 
coloured  by  the  prepossessions  of  his  own  political  career. 
While  Hutchinson  was,  indeed,  a  miracle  of  industry,  it 
was  only  a  small  part  of  his  industry  that  he  was  free  to 
devote  to  historical  research.  However  sincere  may  have 
been  his  purpose  to  tell  the  truth  and  to  be  fair  to  all,  the 
literary  product  of  such  research  was  inevitably  weakened, 
as  can  now  be  abundantly  shown,  by  many  serious  over 
sights  and  by  many  glaring  misrepresentations,  apparently 
through  his  failure  to  make  a  thorough  use  of  important 
sources  of  information  then  accessible  to  him,  such  as 
colonial  pamphlets,  colonial  newspapers,  the  manuscripts 
of  his  own  ancestors  and  of  the  Mathers,  and  especially 
the  General  Court  records  of  the  province  in  which  he 
played  so  great  a  part.  As  to  the  rarer  intellectual  and 
spiritual  endowments  of  a  great  historian, — breadth  of 
vision,  breadth  of  sympathy,  the  historic  imagination,  and 
the  power  of  style, — these  Hutchinson  almost  entirely 
lacked.  That  he  had  not  the  gift  of  historical  divination, 
the  vision  and  the  faculty  divine  to  see  the  inward  meaning 
of  men  and  events,  and  to  express  that  meaning  in  gracious, 
noble,  and  fascinating  speech — Hutchinson  was  himself 
partly  conscious. 

His  first  volume  seems  to  have  been  written  under  a 
consciousness  that  his  subject  was  provincial,  and  even 
of  a  local  interest  altogether  circumscribed.  In  the  second 
volume,  one  perceives  a  more  cheery  and  confident  tone, 
due,  probably,  to  the  prompt  recognition  which  his  labours 
had  then  received  not  only  in  Massachusetts  but  in  Eng 
land.  In  the  third  volume  are  to  be  observed  signs  of 
increasing  ease  in  composition,  a  more  flowing  and  copious 
style,  not  a  few  felicities  of  expression.  That,  in  all  these 


The  Revolutionary  Period  81 

volumes,  he  intended  to  tell  the  truth,  and  to  practise 
fairness,  is  also  plain;  to  say  that  he  did  not  entirely 
succeed,  is  to  say  that  he  was  human.  Of  course,  the 
supreme  test  of  historical  fairness  was  reached  when  he 
came  to  the  writing  of  his  third  volume, — which  was, in  fact, 
the  history  not  only  of  his  contemporaries  but  of  himself, 
and  of  himself  in  deep  and  angry  disagreement  with  many 
of  them.  It  is  much  to  his  praise  to  say  that,  throughout 
this  third  volume,  the  prevailing  tone  is  calm,  moderate, 
just,  with  only  occasional  efforts  at  pleading  his  own 
cause,  with  only  occasional  flickers  of  personal  or  political 
enmity.  But  no  one  should  approach  the  reading  of 
Hutchinsoh's  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay  with  the  expect 
ation  of  finding  in  it  either  brilliant  writing  or  an  enter 
taining  story.  From  beginning  to  end,  there  are  few 
passages  that  can  be  called  even  salient — but  almost 
everywhere  an  even  flow  of  statesmanlike  narrative ;  severe 
in  form;  rather  dull,  probably,  to  all  who  have  not  the 
preparation  of  a  previous  interest  in  the  matters  discussed ; 
but  always  pertinent,  vigorous,  and  full  of  pith.  Notwith 
standing  Hutchinson's  modest  opinion  of  his  own  ability 
in  the  drawing  of  historical  portraits,  it  is  probable  that 
in  such  portraits  of  distinguished  characters,  both  among 
his  contemporaries  and  among  his  predecessors,  the  general 
reader  will  be  likely  to  find  himself  the  most  interested. 

Samuel  Peters. — Somewhere  in  the  debatable  land  be 
tween  history,  fiction,  and  burlesque,  there  wanders  a 
notorious  book,  first  published  anonymously  in  London 
in  1781,  and  entitled  A  General  History  of  Connecticut. 
Though  the  authorship  of  this  book  was  never  acknow 
ledged  by  the  man  who  wrote  it,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
it  was  the  work  of  Samuel  Peters,  an  Anglican  clergyman 
and  a  Loyalist,  a  man  of  commanding  personal  presence, 
uncommon  intellectual  resources,  powerful  will,  and  ill- 
balanced  character.  He  opposed  with  frank  and  bitter 


82       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

aggressiveness  the  Revolutionary  politics  then  rampant. 
He  sailed  for  England  in  October,  1774.  There  he  abode 
until  his  return  to  America  in  1805.  During  the  five 
or  six  years  immediately  following  his  arrival  in  England, 
he  seems  to  have  had  congenial  employment  in  composing 
his  General  History  of  Connecticut,  as  a  means  apparently 
of  wreaking  an  undying  vengeance  upon  the  sober  little 
commonwealth  in  which  he  was  born  and  from  which  he 
had  been  ignominiously  cast  out.  The  result  of  this  long 
labour  of  hate  was  a  production,  calling  itself  historical, 
which  was  characterised  by  a  contemporary  English 
journal — The  Monthly  Review — as  having  "so  many 
marks  of  party  spleen  and  idle  credulity"  as  to  be  "alto 
gether  unworthy  of  the  public  attention."  In  spite,  how 
ever,  of  such  censure  both  then  and  since  then,  this  alleged 
History  has  had,  now  for  more  than  a  hundred  years, 
not  only  a  vast  amount  of  public  attention,  but  very  con 
siderable  success  in  a  form  that  seems  to  have  been  dear 
to  its  author's  heart — that  of  spreading  through  the 
English-speaking  world  a  multitude  of  ludicrous  im 
pressions  to  the  dishonour  of  the  people  of  whom  it  treats. 
It  cannot  be  denied  that  for  such  a  service  it  was  most 
admirably  framed;  since  its  grotesque  fabrications  in  dis 
paragement  of  a  community  of  Puritan  dissenters  seem  to 
have  proved  a  convenient  quarry  for  ready-made  calum 
nies  upon  that  sort  of  people  there  and  elsewhere. 

Jonathan  Carver. — In  the  year  1763,  at  the  close  of  that 
famous  war  which  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  Canada 
by  the  English,  there  was  in  New  England  an  enterprising 
young  American  soldier,  named  Jonathan  Carver,  stranded 
as  it  were  amid  the  threatened  inanities  of  peace  and  civil 
isation,  and  confronting  a  prospect  that  was  for  him  alto 
gether  insipid  through  its  lack  of  adventure,  and  especially 
of  barbaric  restlessness  and  discomfort.  "I  began  to  con 
sider,"  so  he  wrote  a  few  years  afterward,  "  having  rendered 


The  Revolutionary  Period  83 

my  country  some  services  during  the  war,  how  I  might 
continue  still  serviceable,  and  contribute,  as  much  as  lay 
in  my  power,  to  make  that  vast  acquisition  of  territory 
gained  by  Great  Britain  in  North  America,  advantageous 
to  it.  To  this  purpose,  I  determined  to  explore  the  most 
unknown  parts  of  them."  The  project  thus  clearly  wrought 
out  in  1763  by  this  obscure  provincial  captain  in  New  Eng 
land  anticipated  by  forty  years  the  American  statesman 
ship  which,  under  President  Jefferson,  sent  Meriwether 
Lewis  and  William  Clark  to  penetrate  the  passes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  to  pitch  their  tents  by  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia  River ;  even  as  it  anticipated  by  a  hundred 
years  the  Canadian  statesmanship  which,  under  Sir  John 
Macdonald,  has  in  our  time  beaten  out  an  iron  way  across 
the  continent  at  its  greatest  breadth. 

It  seems  to  have  taken  Carver  about  three  years  to 
complete  his  preparations  for  the  tremendous  enterprise 
which  then  inspired  him.  Not  until  June,  1766, — in  the 
political  lull  occasioned  by  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act 
— was  he  able  to  start.  After  passing  Albany,  he  plunged 
at  once  into  the  wilderness  which  then  stretched  its  rough 
dominion  over  the  uncomputed  spaces  to  the  western  sea. 
In  June,  1768,  he  began  his  journey  homeward.  In  the 
October  following,  he  reached  Boston,  "having,"  as  he 
says,  "been  absent  from  it  on  this  expedition  two  years 
and  five  months,  and  during  that  time  travelled  near  seven 
thousand  miles.  From  thence,  as  soon  as  I  had  properly 
digested  my  journal  and  charts,  I  set  out  for  England,  to 
communicate  the  discoveries  I  had  made,  and  to  render 
them  beneficial  to  the  kingdom."  In  1778,  nine  years 
after  his  arrival  there,  he  succeeded  in  bringing  out  his 
noble  and  fascinating  book  of  Travels  through  the  Interior 
Parts  of  North  America.  It  was  in  consequence  of  the 
publication,  soon  after  his  death,  in  the  year  1780,  of  the 
tale  of  Carver's  career  as  an  explorer  in  America,  and 
especially  of  the  struggles  and  the  miseries  he  encountered 


84       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

as  an  American  man  of  letters  in  London,  that,  for  the 
relief  in  future  of  deserving  men  of  letters  there,  the 
foundation  was  laid  for  that  munificent  endowment,  now 
so  celebrated  under  the  name  of  'The  Royal  Literary  Fund." 
His  best  monument  is  his  book.  As  a  contribution  to  the 
history  of  inland  discovery  upon  this  continent,  and  es 
pecially  to  our  materials  for  true  and  precise  information 
concerning  the  "manners,  customs,  religion,  and  language 
of  the  Indians,"  Carver's  book  of  Travels  is  of  unsurpassed 
value.  Besides  its  worth  for  instruction,  is  its  worth  for 
delight;  we  have  no  other  " Indian  book "  more  captivating 
than  this.  Here  is  the  charm  of  a  sincere,  powerful,  and 
gentle  personality — the  charm  of  novel  and  significant  facts, 
of  noble  ideas,  of  humane  sentiments,  all  uttered  in  English 
well-ordered  and  pure.  In  evidence,  also,  of  the  European 
celebrity  acquired  by  his  book,  may  be  cited  the  fact  that 
it  seems  to  have  had  a  strong  fascination  for  Schiller,  as, 
indeed,  might  have  been  expected;  and  Carver's  report  of 
a  harangue  by  a  Nadowessian  chief  over  the  dead  body  of 
one  of  their  great  warriors — being  itself  a  piece  of  true 
poetry  in  prose — was  turned  into  verse  by  the  German  poet, 
and  became  famous  as  his  Nadowessiers  Totenlied, — a 
dirge  which  pleased  Goethe  so  much  that  he  declared  it 
to  be  among  the  best  of  Schiller's  poems  in  that  vein,  and 
wished  that  his  friend  had  written  a  dozen  such.1 

St.  John  Crevecceur. — In  1782,  there  was  published 
in  London  an  American  book  written  with  a  sweetness  of 
tone  and,  likewise,  with  a  literary  grace  and  a  power  of 
fascination  then  quite  unexpected  from  the  western  side 
of  the  Atlantic.  It  presented  itself  to  the  public  behind 
this  ample  title-page : — ' '  Letters  from  an  American  Farmer, 
describing  certain  provincial  situations,  manners,  and 
customs,  not  generally  known,  and  conveying  some  idea 

»  See  "The  Indian  Death-Dirge,"  in  The  Poems  and  Ballads  of 
Schiller,"  by  Bulwer  Lytton,  Tauchnitz  Edition,  pp.  26-27. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  85 

of  the  late  and  present  interior  circumstances  of  the 
British  Colonies  in  North  America:  written  for  the  infor 
mation  of  a  friend  in  England,  by  J.  Hector  St.  John,  a 
farmer  in  Pennsylvania."  The  name  of  the  author  as  thus 
given  upon  his  title-page,  was  not  his  name  in  full,  but 
only  the  baptismal  portion  of  it.  By  omitting  from  the 
book  his  surname,  which  was  Crevecceur,  he  had  chosen 
to  disguise  to  the  English  public  the  fact — which  could 
hardly  have  added  to  his  welcome  among  them — that 
though  he  was  an  American,  he  was  not  an  English  Ameri 
can,  but  a  French  one, — having  been  born  in  Normandy, 
and  of  a  noble  family  there,  in  1731.  While  really  an 
American  farmer,  Crevecceur  was  a  man  of  education, 
of  refinement,  of  varied  experience  in  the  world.  When 
but  a  lad  of  sixteen,  he  had  removed  from  France  to 
England;  when  but  twenty-three,  he  had  emigrated  to 
America. 

As  an  account  of  the  American  colonies,  this  book 
makes  no  pretension  either  to  system  or  to  completeness; 
and  yet  it  does  attain  to  a  sort  of  breadth  of  treatment 
by  seizing  upon  certain  representative  traits  of  the  three 
great  groups  of  colonies, — the  northern,  the  middle,  and 
the  southern.  There  are  in  this  book  two  distinct  notes 
• — one  of  great  peace,  another  of  great  pain.  The  earlier 
and  larger  portion  of  the  book  gives  forth  this  note  of 
peace:  it  is  a  prose  pastoral  of  life  in  the  New  World,  as 
that  life  must  have  revealed  itself  to  a  well-appointed 
American  farmer  of  poetic  and  optimistic  temper,  in  the 
final  stage  of  our  colonial  era,  and  just  before  the  influx  of 
the  riot  and  bitterness  of  the  great  disruption.  This  note 
of  peace  holds  undisturbed  through  the  first  half  of  the 
book,  and  more.  Not  until,  in  the  latter  half  of  it,  the 
author  comes  to  describe  slavery  in  the  Far  South,  likewise 
the  harsh  relations  between  the  colonists  and  the  Indians, 
finally  the  outbreak  of  the  tempest  of  civil  war,  does  his 
book  give  out  its  second  note — the  note  of  pain.  By  its 


&6       A  Manual  of  American  Literature 

inclusion  of  these  sombre  and  agonising  aspects  of  life 
in  America,  the  book  gains,  as  is  most  obvious,  both  in 
authenticity  and  literary  strength.  It  is  not  hard  to 
understand  why,  at  such  a  time,  a  book  like  this  should 
soon  have  made  its  way  into  the  languages  of  Europe, 
particularly  those  of  France,  Germany,  and  Holland;  nor 
why  it  should  have  fascinated  multitudes  of  readers  in  all 
parts  of  the  Continent,  even  beguiling  many  of  them — too 
many  of  them,  perhaps — to  try  their  fortunes  in  that  blithe 
and  hospitable  portion  of  the  planet  where  the  struggle 
for  existence  seemed  almost  a  thing  unknown.  In  England, 
likewise,  the  book  won  for  itself,  as  was  natural,  a  wide 
and  a  gracious  consideration;  its  praises  lasted  among 
English  men  of  letters  as  long,  at  least,  as  until  the  time 
of  Hazlitt  and  Charles  Lamb ;  while  its  idealised  treatment 
of  rural  life  in  America  wrought  quite  traceable  effects 
upon  the  imagination  of  Campbell,  Byron,  Southey,  and 
Coleridge,  and  furnished  not  a  few  materials  for  such 
captivating  and  airy  schemes  of  literary  colonisation  in 
America  as  that  of  "Pantisocracy." 


The  Nineteenth  Century 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

I.       THE    HISTORIANS 

Early  Dearth  of  Good  Writers. — Among  the  consciously 
useful  forms  of  literature  there  is  none  in  which,  by  com 
mon  consent,  American  men  of  letters  have  so  uniformly 
distinguished  themselves  as  in  history.  Bradford  and 
Winthrop  in  the  seventeenth  century  are  as  conspicuous 
among  their  countrymen  and  as  respectable  before  the 
world  as  Prescott  and  Parkman  in  the  nineteenth.  Prince 
and  Stith  are  as  minutely  conscientious — and  almost  as 
dull — as  the  most  scientific  of  modern  students;  and 
Hutchinson,  when  judged  by  the  prevailing  standards  of 
his  own  times,  will  be  found  not  less  diligent  or  judicious 
than  Adams  and  Rhodes  are  thought  to-day.  Indeed, 
there  is  in  our  literature  but  one  period  destitute  of  his 
torians  of  merit,  and  that  period  falls  in  the  years  im 
mediately  after  the  Revolution,  precisely  in  the  years  when 
we  should  most  expect  historical  writing  to  flourish;  for 
those  last  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  seem,  as  we 
look  back  upon  them,  to  be  full  of  encouragement  for 
national  pride.  In  1781,  Lord  Cornwallis  had  surrendered 
at  Yorktown.  In  1783,  King  George  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  his  rebellious  subjects  in  America.  Under 
a  constitution  since  renowned,  they  soon  instituted  for  them 
selves  a  federal  government  upon  a  continental  scale.  The 
prediction  of  Jefferson's  Declaration  seemed  to  be  justified. 
The  United  States  were  ready  "to  assume  among  the 
powers  of  the  earth  that  separate  and  equal  station  to 

89 


90  The  Nineteenth  Century 

which   the  laws  of  nature   and   of   nature's   God  entitle 
them." 

Popular  revolutions  such  as  this  have  often  been  fol 
lowed  by  a  period  of  great  literary  fruitfulness,  particu 
larly  in  history.  So  it  proved  in  Holland,  in  France, 
in  Italy.  But  in  America  nothing  of  the  sort  occurred. 
The  twenty-five  years  after  Yorktown,  barren  in  literature 
of  every  kind,  are  exceptionally  devoid  of  historical  writers 
who  deal  with  large  subjects  in  a  large  way.  There  were, 
of  course,  narratives  of  the  war  by  participants  and  pane 
gyrists.  Such  were  David  Ramsay's  "History  of  the 
American  Revolution "  (1789),  Mrs.  Mercy  Warren's  "Rise, 
Progress,  and  Termination  of  the  American  Revolution" 
(1805),  and  the  "History  of  the  American  Revolution" 
which  appeared  in  1819  under  the  name  of  Paul  Allen. 
But  none  of  these  works  shows  largeness  of  view,  and 
none  is  distinguished  by  literary  qualities.  They  serve  a 
good  purpose,  however,  in  reflecting  the  feeling  of  the 
Revolution.  This  is  particularly  true  of  Mrs.  Warren's 
book.  She  was  a  sister  of  James  Otis,  whose  argument 
against  the  writs  of  assistance  in  1761  marks  the  begin 
ning  of  the  Revolutionary  agitation,  and  the  wife  of  General 
Joseph  Warren,  who  fell  on  Bunker  Hill ;  and  her  intimacy 
with  these  and  other  New  England  patriots  lends  a  certain 
representative  value  to  her  forgotten  discursiveness.  A 
similar  value  attaches  also  to  the  more  readable,  but  not 
less  bitter  "Life  of  James  Otis,  containing  Notices  of  Con 
temporary  Characters  and  Events,"  written  by  William 
Tudor;  likewise,  though  in  a  less  degree,  to  several  other 
early  biographies  of  Revolutionary  worthies,  among  which 
the  most  weighty  is  the  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  in 
five  volumes  (1804-1807),  based  upon  his  original  papers 
and  compiled  by  his  fellow- Virginian  John  Marshall,  after 
wards  famous  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  For 
students  of  American  history,  this  is  a  useful  book,  such 
as  a  man  of  Marshall's  ability  could  not  fail  to  produce 


The  Historians  91 

when  dealing  with  subjects  with  which  he  was  thoroughly 
familiar  and  in  which  he  was  deeply  interested.  But  it 
is  hastily  written,  far  too  long,  and,  save  for  its  partisan 
ship,  altogether  colourless.  Nevertheless,  it  occupies  a  re 
latively  high  rank  among  its  coevals,  for,  taken  all  in  all, 
American  writers  on  national  history  in  the  years  1780- 
1820  are  few  and  weak. 

Causes  of  this  Inferiority. — In  explanation  of  this  cir 
cumstance  various  conjectures  have  been  advanced.  In 
dubitably,  the  proscription  of  the  Loyalists  after  the  war 
deprived  the  thirteen  States  of  wealth  and  intelligence 
which  might  otherwise  have  afforded  to  American  literature 
an  American  support.  But  the  effect  upon  letters  of  that 
social  loss  is  easily  exaggerated.  The  promptness  with 
which  serious  English  books  were  reprinted  in  America, 
even  in  the  years  when,  as  Goodrich  discovered,  it  was 
"  positively  injurious  to  the  commercial  credit  of  a  book 
seller  to  undertake  American  works,"  proves  sufficiently 
that  a  reading  public  still  remained.  Another  reason  why, 
in  the  earlier  years  of  our  national  life,  there  were  few 
historians,  may  be  found  in  the  exaggerated  value  which 
most  Americans  then  set  upon  certain  abstract  and  there 
fore  absolute  theories  in  politics.  Among  the  leaders  of 
the  Anti-Federalist  or  Democratic  party,  especially,  a  sort 
of  political  orthodoxy  grew  up.  Theirs  became  a  party 
with  a  creed,  but  without  a  programme.  In  the  Southern 
States,  they  developed,  in  defence  of  their  principles,  an 
extensive  literature  of  political  and  economic  theory,  far 
surpassing  in  variety  of  argument,  subtlety  of  reasoning, 
and  clearness  of  exposition  anything  that  the  North  could 
show.  But  throughout  it  all,  they  appealed  for  support 
to  the  unchanging  text  of  written  constitutions,  or  to  the 
immemorial  prescriptions  of  natural  law ;  upon  history  they 
looked  as  a  tedious  tale  of  ignorance  and  error.  The 
Federalists,  on  the  other  hand,  like  the  Whigs  and  the 


92  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Republicans  who  succeeded  them,  were  a  party  rather  of 
measures  than  of  principles.  For  their  practical  aims,  a 
knowledge  of  human  experience  was  serviceable.  They 
inclined,  therefore,  to  historical  studies,  and  it  is  in  New 
England,  where  their  hold  had  been  strongest,  that  the 
most  significant  of  American  historians  at  length  appear. 
But  even  the  stoutest  Federalist  among  the  contemporaries 
of  Jefferson  could  discern  in  the  recent  experience  of  the 
nation  at  large  little  to  stimulate  patriotic  ardour.  In  the 
estimation  of  men  as  yet  unaccustomed  to  "think  con- 
tinentally,"  the  new  government  had  brought  few  blessings: 
its  burdens  seemed  innumerable.  Taxes  were  high. 
Money  was  bad,  and  scarce  as  well.  The  Revolution  had 
loosened  the  bonds  of  traditional  authority,  and  internal 
disorder  was  rife.  The  mutual  obligations  assumed  by 
England  and  by  the  United  States  at  the  Peace  of  1783 
were  disregarded  on  both  sides;  and  a  new  treaty,  whose 
stipulations  the  vast  majority  of  Americans  deemed  hu 
miliating  to  themselves  and  dishonourable  towards  their 
French  allies,  served  chiefly  to  prolong  internal  dissensions 
by  introducing  as  an  unwelcome  issue  in  American  politics 
the  conflicting  sympathies  of  the  Federalists  with  England 
and  of  the  Democrats  with  France.  What  wonder,  then, 
that  those  who  concerned  themselves  with  the  history  of 
America  at  all  turned  from  the  Union  to  their  several  States, 
each  of  which,  in  their  view,  had  been  made  separately  sover 
eign  by  the  events  of  the  Revolution.  Their  temper  is  well 
expressed  by  the  title  of  David  Ramsay's  "History  of  the 
Revolution  of  South  Carolina  from  a  British  Province  to 
an  Independent  State"  (1785).  Ramsay's  "South  Caro 
lina"  was  soon  followed  by  Belknap's  "New  Hampshire" 
(1784-92),  Proud's  "Pennsylvania"  (1797),  Minot's  "Con 
tinuation  of  the  History  [Hutchinson's]  of  Massachusetts" 
(1798),  Burke's  "Virginia"  (1804),  Williamson's  "  North 
Carolina"  (1812),  and  Trumbull's  "Connecticut"  (1818). 
Among  these  books,  Belknap's  justly  holds  the  highest 


The  Historians  93 

rank.  Its  style  is  vigorous  and  flexible,  and  in  the  opinion 
of  de  Tocqueville,  "the  reader  of  Belknap  will  find  more 
general  ideas  and  more  strength  of  thought  than  are  to 
be  met  with  in  other  American  historians"  of  the  same 
period. 

Washington  Irving. — The  life  of  Washington  Irving  as 
a  man  of  letters  is  followed  elsewhere  in  this  volume;  but 
no  account  of  American  historical  writers,  however  slight, 
can  omit  his  name.  In  the  more  laborious  paths  of  the 
historian's  vocation  he  seldom  walked.  Research  was  for 
eign  to  his  temperament,  and  in  his  histories  references  to 
authorities  are  few.  He  makes  no  pretence  of  disclosing 
new  facts,  or  even  of  suggesting  new  theories  concerning 
facts  already  known.  But  "the  picturesque  distances  of 
earth's  space  and  the  romantic  remoteness  of  history" 
kindled  his  imagination,  and  his  travels,  which  were  ex 
tended  for  an  American  of  his  day,  produced  enduring 
results  in  a  series  of  books  dealing  with  the  countries, 
and  in  part  with  the  history  of  the  countries,  which  he 
visited.  One  reason  for  his  assuming  the  duties,  not  over- 
serious,  of  an  attache  of  the  American  legation  in  Madrid 
was  Minister  Everett's  suggestion  that  he  make  an  Eng 
lish  version  of  the  matter  relating  to  America  in  Navarre te's 
work  on  the  voyages  and  discoveries  of  the  Spanish  at 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which  had  then  been  re 
cently  published.  This  project  presently  expanded  into 
Irving's  "Life  and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus,  to 
which  are  added  Those  of  his  Companions"  (1828).  It  was 
followed  in  the  next  year  by  "The  Conquest  of  Granada," 
and  in  1832  by  "Tales  of  the  Alhambra."  Returning  to 
America,  Irving  travelled  extensively  west  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  and  presently  published  his  "Astoria"  (1836)  and 
"The  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville"  (1837).  Of 
these  books,  which,  with  an  unimportant  "Life  of  Ma 
homet  and  his  Successors "  (1849)  and  a  five-volume  "Life 


94  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  Washington "  (1855-59),  constitute  Irving's  historical 
writings,  the  "Columbus"  is  justly  the  most  esteemed. 
It  gained  for  its  author  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Soci 
ety  of  Literature  and  the  Oxford  degree  of  D.C.L.  And 
not  without  reason,  for  it  embodies,  in  a  skilful  narrative, 
not  merely  the  substance  of  Navarrete's  documents,  which 
Irving  rendered  with  fidelity  into  excellent  English,  but 
also  the  results  of  other  studies  which  were,  for  him,  excep 
tionally  thorough.  Modern  criticism  has  been  very  busy 
with  the  life  of  Columbus  since  Irving  wrote.  The  narra 
tives  of  Ferdinand  Columbus  and  of  Las  Casas,  upon  which 
he  largely  relied,  have  been  somewhat  discredited,  and 
the  character  of  the  discoverer  himself  has  not  altogether 
escaped.  Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  Irving's  lively  fancy 
led  him  to  embellish  his  account  of  certain  dramatic  pas 
sages  in  the  life  of  Columbus  with  details  which,  while  not 
improbable  in  themselves,  are  unsupported  by  document 
ary  or  other  direct  evidence.  But  the  attempt  of  some 
subsequent  writers,  and  notably  of  Irving's  countryman 
Winsor,  to  discredit  him  on  that  account  has  been  carried 
beyond  reason.  Irving's  narrative  of  facts  in  the  "Colum 
bus  "  is  conscientiously  based  upon  primary  sources; 
and  his  judgments,  though  occasionally  over-indulgent  of 
his  hero,  are  in  general  sound.  Columbus  may  not  have 
been  in  all  respects  such  a  man  as  Irving  represents  him, 
but  it  is,  at  least,  ennobling  for  the  reader  to  believe  that 
he  was  such  a  man. 

In  writing  his  "Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada  from 
the  MSS.  of  Fray  Antonio  Agapida,"  Irving  recurred  to  a 
device  which  he  had  already  employed  with  success.  Fray 
Antonio  is  no  less  mythical  than  the  "small  elderly  gentle 
man,  dressed  in  an  old  black  coat  and  cocked  hat,  by  the 
name  of  Knickerbocker,"  who  was  supposed  to  have  left 
behind  him,  in  his  rooms  at  the  Independent  Columbian 
Hotel,  that  "very  curious  kind  of  a  written  book  in  his 
own  handwriting"  which,  being  presently  printed  "to  pay 


The  Historians  95 

off  the  bill  for  his  board  and  lodging,"  brought  to  its  real 
author  his  first  popularity.  Nor  can  the  " Granada"  lay 
much  stronger  claim  to  be  considered  authentic  history 
than  Irving' s  burlesque  account  of  New  York  "from  the 
beginning  of  the  world  to  the  end  of  the  Dutch  dynasty." 
It  is  not,  of  course,  predominantly  humorous;  but  it  is,  in 
reality,  merely  a  historical  romance,  adorned  with  bits 
from  old  chroniclers.  In  it  Irving  gave  his  imagination 
loose  rein;  and  for  that  reason  it  is  the  most  readable  of 
his  Spanish  books. 

His  writings  upon  American  history  are  less  sympathetic. 
The  matter  of  "Captain  Bonneville"  was  fine  in  its  facts, 
but  it  contained  too  little  of  the  last  to  stimulate  Irving' s  ro 
mantic  imagination,  and  it  remained  cold  and  almost  crude 
under  his  shaping  hand.  In  the  founding  of  the  settlement 
by  which  a  butcher's  boy  from  Waldorf  hoped  to  seize 
the  mighty  river  of  the  West,  there  was  also  the  stuff  "of 
Romance,"  and  Irving's  "Astoria,  or  Anecdotes  of  Enter 
prise  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  should  transport  the 
reader  to 

the  continuous  woods 

Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 

Save  his  own  dashings. 

In  fact  it  continually  brings  his  mind  back  to  the  ledgers 
of  a  too  prosperous  counting-house.  Into  the  "Life  of 
Washington"  Irving  was  never  able  to  put  his  heart.  The 
book  was  the  task-work  of  his  declining  years.  It  was 
undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  enterprising  publishers,  to 
whom  he  listened  the  more  readily  because  the  number 
of  those  dependent  upon  him  had  increased  as  the  in 
come  from  his  earlier  works  declined.  Its  composition 
dragged  from  the  outset.  When  at  length  the  volumes 
appeared,  they  achieved  a  pronounced  succes  d'estime;  but 
the  work  shows  neither  the  firm  grip  of  its  subject  nor  the 
sustained  vigour  of  treatment  which  might  rank  it  among 
great  biographies.  It  is  rather  a  history  of  the  United 


96  The  Nineteenth  Century 

States  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
There  are  entertaining  anecdotes  in  it,  vivid  descriptions  of 
battles,  and  sturdy  American  feeling.  But  of  Washington 
himself  there  is  only  a  pale  shadow. 

Irving' s  position  in  American  historiography  is  a  peculiar 
one.  He  was  not  primarily  a  historian.  In  a  sense  he 
stands  outside  the  main  currents  of  our  historical  writing. 
Nevertheless,  he  had  a  strong  influence  in  determining 
their  course.  His  "Knickerbocker  History  of  New  York," 
essentially  a  work  of  humour,  was  taken  seriously  by 
various  of  his  fellow-townsmen,  who  were  thus  incited, 
much  to  Irving's  amusement,  to  undertake  extensive 
studies  in  local  history  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  their 
Dutch  progenitors  from  his  ridicule.  He  was  the  earliest 
among  American  men  of  letters  to  choose  historical  sub 
jects  for  the  exercise  of  his  craft,  and  thus  became  the 
founder  of  the  "  picturesque  school "  of  American  historians, 
in  which  Prescott,  Motley,  and  Parkman  are  his  followers. 
And  he  was  the  first  to  feel  the  fascination  which  the  power 
of  Spain,  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New,  has  not  ceased 
to  exercise  upon  American  writers  of  history  ever  since. 

The  New  England  School. — When  the  events  of  1814, 
which  promised  a  prolonged  peace  to  Europe,  had  put 
an  end  likewise  to  the  second  war  between  Great  Britain 
and  her  former  colonists,  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
freed  at  last  from  their  long  subserviency  to  the  inherited 
animosities  of  Europe,  turned  with  confident  elation  to 
face  the  future  problems  of  America.  For  the  next  half- 
century,  while  the  frontier  was  advancing  from  the  Ohio 
to  the  Mississippi,  to  the  Missouri,  to  the  "Great  Stony 
Mountains,"  and  beyond  them  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific, 
the  Western  man  was  too  much  engrossed  in  the  bustling 
business  of  making  an  empire  to  find  time  for  writing  its 
annals.  It  was,  therefore,  only  in  New  England,  in  the 
section  of  the  country  farthest  removed  from  the  course 


The  Historians  97 

of  that  breathless  rush  across  the  continent,  that  there 
existed  the  leisure  as  well  as  the  wealth  necessary  for  the 
study  of  historical  books  and  documents.  To  wealth  and 
leisure  we  must  add,  moreover, — as  important  conditions 
underlying  the  historical  productiveness  of  New  England 
— literary  and  political  traditions,  the  possession  of  docu 
ments  and  other  instruments  of  research,  and,  finally,  the 
general  intellectual  tone  of  the  extreme  Eastern  States — 
that  part  of  the  country  most  strongly  affected  by  the 
civilisation  of  Europe.  As  Tyler  points  out,  the  earliest 
development  of  New  England  letters  had  taken  place  in 
those  fields  of  half-literary  effort  which  seek  to  provide 
the  instruments  or  to  record  the  acts  of  statesmen,  in 
oratory  and  in  history.  And  when,  at  the  close  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  the  intellectual  influence  of  Europe  upon 
America  began  to  revive,  and  those  forces  which  were  to 
produce  upon  the  Continent  the  Revolution  of  1830  helped, 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  to  excite  the  democratic  tur 
moil  of  the  Jacksonian  era,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
new  literary  strivings,  which  manifested  themselves  some 
what  widely  in  fiction  and  poetry,  should  take  on  in  New 
England  the  form  of  historical  narrative.  The  manner  of 
this  new  historical  movement  was,  in  large  measure,  deter 
mined  by  the  influence  of  German  scholarship.  It  was 
from  Gottingen  that  George  Ticknor,  afterward  the  his 
torian  of  Spanish  literature,  wrote  to  his  father  in  1815, 
lamenting  the  "mortifying  distance  there  is  between  an 
European  and  an  American  scholar.  We  do  not  know," 
said  he,  "  what  a  Greek  scholar  is;  we  do  not  even  know  the 
process  by  which  a  man  is  to  be  made  one."  And  it  was 
in  those  bare  halls  of  the  old  Georgia  Augusta,  at  the  feet 
of  Heeren  and  Eichhorn  and  Dissen  and  Blumenbach, 
that  other  grateful  New  Englanders — among  them  George 
Bancroft  and  Edward  Everett  in  Ticknor's  time,  and 
Longfellow  and  Motley  at  a  later  day — learned  something 
of  the  spirit  of  Continental  scholarship.  In  this  spirit  the 


98  The  Nineteenth  Century 

New  England  School  of  historians  attempted,  on  the  whole, 
to  work.  They  were  somewhat  swerved,  no  doubt,  by 
the  esteem  in  which  their  countrymen  still  held  the  elabor 
ate  formalism  of  such  orators  as  Webster  and  Everett,  and, 
also,  more  to  their  advantage,  by  their  own  admiration 
for  the  picturesqueness  of  Irving,  whose  example  en 
couraged  them  to  treat  by  preference  of  foreign  subjects. 
Still  they  stood  firmly  upon  their  native  soil.  Born  among 
a  people  whose  temperament,  though  shot  through  with 
a  strain  of  idealism  and  even  dashed  at  times  with  a  touch 
of  imagination,  was  still  fundamentally  sober,  they  were  pre 
disposed  to  honest  care  in  inquiry  and,  save  when  the  temp 
tations  of  rhetoric  seduced  them,  to  accuracy  of  statement. 

Thus  even  those  historians  of  the  New  England  School 
who  had  not  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  European  study 
preserved  most  of  the  traits  of  those  who  had.  If  Jared 
Sparks,  a  home-bred  scholar  who  successfully  conducted 
The  North  American  Review  in  its  earlier  days  (1817—18, 
1823-30)  and  lived  to  become  professor  of  history  (1839-49) 
and  president  (1849-53)  °f  Harvard  University,  had  better 
understood  the  standards  of  Ranke  and  the  "  Monumenta 
Germaniae  Historica,"  he  might,  indeed,  have  allowed  him 
self  less  latitude  than  he  actually  took  in  editing  the 
"  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolu 
tion"  (1829-30,  12  volumes),  the  "Works  of  Benjamin 
Franklin"  (1836-40,  10  volumes),  and  especially  the  "Life 
and  Writings  of  George  Washington"  (1834-37,  12  vol 
umes).  But  the  extent  of  his  fault  was  greatly  exag 
gerated  by  certain  of  his  critics,  and  not  even  the  most 
rigorous  training  could  have  enhanced  the  diligence  with 
which  he  preserved  these  and  other  less  important  sources 
of  our  Revolutionary  history.  Mention  of  Sparks  naturally 
suggests  the  name  of  Peter  Force  (1790-1868),  another 
diligent  compiler  of  facts.  Force's  "  American  Archives 
...  a  Documentary  History"  etc.  (1837-53,  9  volumes, 
left  incomplete)  was  published  by  Congress. 


The  Historians  99 

When  we  pass  to  the  more  illustrious  writers  of  what 
has  been  called  the  classical  period  of  historical  writing  in 
America,  we  discover  two  tolerably  distinct  tendencies. 
The  one  tendency  appears  in  those  men  who  were  led  to 
write  by  the  spirit  of  the  time  and  the  place,  and  who  wrote 
of  America  out  of  an  ardent  interest  and  a  profound  belief 
in  the  country  and  its  political  and  social  institutions. 
Foremost  among  these  men  stands  George  Bancroft.  The 
other  tendency  appears  in  Prescott,  Motley,  and  Parkman, 
who,  though  trained  in  the  same  atmosphere,  were  first 
men  of  letters  and  afterward  Americans.  They  sought, 
not  national  and  political,  but  picturesque  and  dramatic 
subjects,  and  these  subjects  lay,  in  large  part,  outside  the 
history  of  their  own  country. 

George  Bancroft. — Bancroft  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  long  life  (1800—91)  upon  his  monumental  history  of 
the  United  States,  a  work  that  has  occupied  a  high  posi 
tion  among  historical  writings  upon  America.  It  was  his 
ambition,  as  he  announces  in  the  Preface  to  his  first 
volume  (1834),  to  write  "a  history  of  the  United  States 
from  the  discovery  of  the  American  continent  to  the  present 
time."  Although  he  anticipated  years  of  work  in  the  com 
pletion  of  the  task,  he  could  not  have  foreseen  either  that 
it  was  to  consume  more  than  half  a  century  of  his  indus 
trious  life,  or  that  the  history  itself  was  to  end  near  the 
real  beginning  of  the  Republic.  Bancroft  was  a  writer 
inspired  by  his  theme  and  exalted  by  the  conception  of  his 
undertaking.  Witness  the  opening  sentences : 

The  United  States  of  America  constitute  an  essential  portion  of 
a  great  political  system,  embracing  all  the  civilised  nations  of  the 
earth.  At  a  period  when  the  force  of  moral  opinion  is  rapidly  in 
creasing,  they  have  the  precedence  in  the  practice  and  the  defence 
of  the  equal  rights  of  man.  The  sovereignty  of  the  people  is  here 
a  conceded  axiom,  and  the  laws,  established  upon  that  basis,  are 
cherished  with  faithful  patriotism.  While  the  nations  of  Europe 


ioo  The  Nineteenth  Century 

aspire  after  change,  our  constitution  engages  the  fond  admiration 
of  the  people,  by  which  it  has  been  established.  .  .  . 

The  rhetorical  flavour  of  the  passage  is  characteristic. 
Critics  have  been  inclined  to  regard  the  style  of  the  "His 
tory"  as  extravagant  and  perfervid.  They  have,  perhaps, 
tended  to  overlook  the  influence  of  the  sincere  enthusiasm 
and  robust  patriotism  of  the  early  days  of  national  organi 
sation  and  growth.  The  book  was  undoubtedly  suited  to 
the  spirit  and  the  national  ideals  of  the  period.  Note  the 
tenor  of  contemporary  opinion.  Bancroft's  friend,  Edward 
Everett,  devoured  the  first  volume  as  it  fell  from  the 
press  and  hastened  to  congratulate  the  author  (October  5, 
1834):  "I  think  that  you  have  written  a  work  which  will 
last  while  the  memory  of  America  lasts;  and  which  will 
instantly  take  its  place  among  the  classics  of  our  language. 
...  I  could  almost  envy  you  to  have  found  so  noble  a 
theme,  while  yet  so  young."  On  the  score  of  method,  the 
"History"  was  generously  applauded  for  its  "exceedingly 
scrupulous  care"  by  A.  H.  L.  Heeren,  the  German  historian 
and  Bancroft's  earlier  teacher  at  Gottingen.  It  was  in 
evitable,  however,  that  the  patriotic  fervour  and  sanguine 
tone  of  the  book  should  suggest  to  wise  heads  a  danger  and 
a  source  of  weakness.  "Let  me  entreat  you,"  writes  Gov. 
John  Davis,  the  author's  brother-in-law,  "not  to  let  the 
partisan  creep  into  the  work.  Do  not  imbue  it  with  any 
present  feeling  or  sentiment  of  the  moment  which  may 
give  impulse  to  your  mind.  .  .  .  The  historian  is  the 
recorder  of  truth  and  not  of  his  own  abstract  opinions." 
In  still  plainer  speech  did  Thomas  Carlyle  complain  that 
Bancroft  was  too  didactic,  going  "too  much  into  the 
origin  of  things  generally  known,  into  the  praise  of  things 
only  partially  praisable,  only  slightly  important."  And  at 
a  later  time  (1852)  Henry  Hallam  wrote:  "I  do  not  go 
along  with  all  your  strictures  on  English  statesmen  and 
on  England,  either  in  substance,  or,  still  more,  in  tone.  .  .  . 


The  Historians  101 

Faults  there  were,  but  I  do  not  think  that  all  were  on 
one  side.  At  all  events,  a  more  moderate  tone  would 
carry  more  weight.  An  historian  has  the  high  office  of 
holding  the  scales."  In  the  midst  of  public  affairs  and 
political  duties,  the  great  labour  of  the  "History"  pro 
gressed.  A  second  volume  appeared  in  1837,  and  a  third 
in  1840.  These  volumes  covered  the  colonial  period  down 
to  1748.  Their  conspicuous  success  contributed  to  Ban 
croft's  appointment,  in  1846,  as  Minister  to  England;  and 
there,  as  subsequently  in  Germany,  his  official  position, 
added  to  his  established  reputation,  opened  to  him  unusual 
stores  of  historical  material.  He  writes  from  England  to 
Prescott,  his  "brother  antiquary":  "I  am  getting  superb 
materials,  and  had  as  lief  a  hundred  should  treat  the  same 
subject  as  not.  If  they  do  it  with  more  heart  than  I,  don't 
you  see  that  as  a  good  citizen  of  the  Republic  I  must  ap 
plaud  and  rejoice  in  being  outdone?"  Under  the  circum 
stances,  the  democratic  humility  of  the  man  is  perhaps 
slightly  overdone;  although  the  unusual  riches  laid  under 
contribution  might  well  have  offered  a  temptation  to  pride, 
for  both  public  and  private  collections  of  great  value  were 
placed  absolutely  at  his  disposal.  An  unrivalled  collec 
tion  of  historical  manuscripts  (now  in  the  Lenox  Library, 
New  York  City)  bears  testimony  to  his  thoroughness  and 
his  wisdom  in  the  use  of  extraordinary  advantages. 

But  Bancroft,  once  established  in  London,  soon  found 
his  literary  labours  pushed  into  the  background.  He  con 
fesses  in  1849:  "Here  in  London,  to  write  is  impossible. 
.  .  .  Mr.  Macaulay  says,  one  man  can  do  but  one  thing 
well  at  a  time.  ...  I  am  of  his  opinion,  now  in  my  ap 
proaching  old  age."  The  eighteen  years  of  private  life  at 
home  that  followed  the  ministry  to  England  (1846-49) 
were  much  more  productive.  Between  1849  and  1867 
six  more  volumes  (iv.  to  ix.)  of  the  "  History"  were  brought 
out,  a  volume  of  "Literary  and  Historical  Miscellanies" 
(1855),  and  the  official  eulogy  pronounced  upon  Abraham 


102  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Lincoln  in  the  House  of  Representatives  (1866).  A  pas 
sage  from  the  "Miscellanies"  on  the  conception  of  history 
displays  Bancroft's  style  in  his  more  oratorical  vein: 

But  history,  as  she  reclines  in  the  lap  of  eternity,  sees  the  mind  of 
humanity  itself  engaged  in  formative  efforts,  constructing  sciences, 
promulgating  laws,  organising  commonwealths,  and  displaying  its 
energies  in  the  visible  movement  of  its  intelligence.  Of  all  pursuits 
that  require  analysis,  history,  therefore,  stands  first.  It  is  equal 
to  philosophy;  for  as  certainly  as  the  actual  bodies  forth  the  ideal, 
so  certainly  does  history  contain  philosophy.  It  is  grander  than 
the  natural  sciences;  for  its  study  is  man,  the  last  work  of  creation, 
and  the  most  perfect  in  its  relations  with  the  Infinite. 

It  was  with  gratification  that  Bancroft  accepted  in 
1867  and  held  until  1874  the  ministerial  post  at  Berlin. 
The  honour  may  have  come  as  Bancroft's  reward  for  writ 
ing  President  Johnson's  first  annual  message  (1865).  At 
the  close  of  the  ministry  appeared  the  tenth  volume  of 
the  History:  "The  American  Revolution.  Epoch  Fourth 
Continued.  Peace  between  America  and  Great  Britain, 
1778-82"  (1874).  This  at  seventy-four  years  of  age! 

It  was  impossible,  of  course,  that  Bancroft  should,  at 
his  advanced  age,  carry  his  work,  as  originally  planned, 
through  the  nineteenth  century.  He  determined,  instead, 
to  write  the  history  of  the  organisation  of  the  Federal 
Government.  In  1882  came,  accordingly,  his  "History 
of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
of  America"  (2  volumes).  Thus,  at  eighty-two,  he  had 
set  forth  in  twelve  generous  volumes  what  may  be  called 
an  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  country.  It  is  in 
deed  more  than  that,  for,  as  the  author  himself  some 
where  remarks,  the  history  of  the  United  States  begins 
with  the  united  resistance  of  the  colonies  to  Great  Britain. 

As  an  historical  writer,  Bancroft  belongs  to  the  period 
of  his  first  volumes  and  not  to  that  of  his  last.  His  in 
terpretation  of  men  and  events  rests  upon  his  political 
philosophy,  and  his  political  philosophy  was  a  heritage  of 


The  Historians  103 

the  times  of  Andrew  Jackson.  To  this  philosophy  he 
was  faithful.  Ranke,  the  German  historian,  once  said  to 
him,  "Your  history  is  the  best  book  ever  written  from 
the  democratic  point  of  view."  Bancroft  was  aware  of 
his  democratic  bias ;  but  he  would  have  denied  with  vehe 
mence  that  this  bias  infused  a  subjective  taint  into  his 
candour  or  laid  a  tinge  of  partiality  upon  his  judgment. 
The  "History"  has  been  called  an  "epic  of  liberty."  It 
is  philosophical,  at  times  rhapsodical — not  scientific — 
history.  It  treats  an  heroic  theme  in  an  heroic  manner. 
Recent  criticism  of  his  method  and  political  theories 
tends  to  obscure  the  brilliancy  of  his  services  to  American 
historiography.  Over  and  above  the  serious  spirit  in 
which  he  set  about  his  task,  the  exacting  search  among 
contemporary  sources,  the  unceasing  devotion  to  truth, 
and  an  unsparing  and  prodigious  industry,  the  broad  and 
national  character  of  the  whole  achievement  calls  for 
grateful  recognition.  Bancroft  raised  the  history  of 
America  above  the  plane  of  provincialism  and  local  in 
terests,  and  set  forth  both  the  total  march  of  internal  events 
incident  to  national  development  and  the  manifold  rela 
tions  of  the  United  States  to  the  history  of  Europe.  This 
wide  perspective  of  events  and  causes  would  hardly  have 
been  possible  except  for  years  of  residence,  both  as  student 
and  diplomat,  in  the  capitals  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 
In  the  matter  of  method  also,  Bancroft's  services  to  his 
torical  research  must  not  be  overlooked.  He  presented 
to  Americans  an  object-lesson  in  the  collection,  criticism, 
and  use  of  scattered  materials.  His  distinction,  then,  as 
the  founder  of  a  new  American  school  rests  upon  a  double 
basis:  his  wide  conception  of  a  national  history  and  his 
improved  methodology  in  research.  He  reaped  abundant 
success,  both  in  the  popular  enthusiasm  with  which  his 
books  were  hailed  and  in  the  extraordinary  personal 
honours  bestowed  upon  him  until  the  time  of  his  death. 
And  it  is  no  disparagement  of  his  services  to  say  that  his 


104  The  Nineteenth  Century 

great  popularity  rests  rather  upon  a  genius  for  catching  up 
and  reflecting  the  youthful  spirit  of  genuine  and  uncritical 
Americanism  than  upon  a  capacity  for  setting  down  without 
passion  and  for  interpreting  without  prejudice  the  human 
events  of  an  inspiring  epoch. 

Contemporaries  of  Bancroft. — The  writers  of  American 
history  who  came  nearest  to  rivalling  Bancroft  in  his  own 
day  were  Richard  Hildreth  (1807-65),  a  vigorous  New 
England  leader  writer  and  anti-slavery  pamphleteer,  and 
George  Tucker  (1775-1861),  a  Southern  lawyer,  who  served 
for  twenty  years  as  professor  of  philosophy  and  political 
economy  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  Hildreth's  "His 
tory  of  the  United  States"  (1849-52,  6  volumes)  comes 
down  to  1821,  Tucker's  (1856-58,  4  volumes)  to  1841. 
Both  did  careful  work,  though  both  have  been  criticised 
for  their  partisan  leanings.  Each  gives  a  relatively  large 
space  to  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  history  of  his 
own  section.  In  the  constitutional  period,  Hildreth  com 
monly  accepts  the  view  of  events  most  favourable  to  the 
Federalist  party,  whereas  Tucker  inclines  to  side  even 
more  strongly  with  the  Democrats,  of  whose  leader, 
Jefferson,  he  had  published,  in  1837,  a  sympathetic  life. 
In  connection  with  this  branch  of  the  New  England  School 
should  be  mentioned  John  Gorham  Palfrey's  illustrious 
"History  of  New  England"  (1858-75,  4  volumes;  a  sup 
plemental  volume,  edited  by  F.  W.  Palfrey,  1890).  Pal 
frey  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  and  for  several  years 
the  editor  of  The  North  American  Review.  His  work  is 
commonly  regarded  as  the  best  of  the  colonial  histories  of 
New  England ;  it  occupies  besides  a  secure  place  in  American 
literature. 

William  Hickling  Prescott. — Eminent  among  the  men 
of  the  "classical"  period  who  wrote  picturesque  and 
romantic  histories,  stands  Prescott  (1796-1859),  author 


The  Historians  105 

of  "The  History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
the  Catholic"  (1838),  "The  History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico  with  a  Preliminary  View  of  the  Ancient  Mexican 
Civilization  and  the  Life  of  the  Conqueror  Hernando 
Cort&s"  (1843),  "Tne  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru, 
with  a  Preliminary  View  of  the  Civilization  of  the  Incas" 
(1847),  "The  History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  the  Second, 
King  of  Spain"  (1855-58),  and  other  historical  and  literary 
works.  "The  Reign  of  Philip"  was  not  finished,  as  Pres- 
cott  suffered,  during  its  preparation  (1858),  a  shock  of 
apoplexy,  and  died  the  following  year.  After  working 
for  ten  years — so  quietly  that  but  few  of  his  friends  knew 
of  the  undertaking — upon  his  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella," 
Prescott,  upon  its  publication,  found  himself  suddenly 
famous.  "Love  of  the  author  gave  the  first  impulse," 
declared  the  author's  friend,  Gardiner;  "the  extraordinary 
merits  of  the  work  did  all  the  rest."  The  American  demand 
for  the  "History"  was  unparalleled,  and  all  Europe  sent 
liberal  and  judicious  praise.  Translations  were  called  for 
in  Russia,  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany. 

A  bodily  affliction,  the  partial  loss  of  sight  in  early 
manhood,  has  lent  a  peculiar  personal  interest  to  Prescott 's 
heroic  performances.  He  has  been  called,  with  but  little 
exaggeration,  "the  blind  historian."  During  his  junior 
year  at  Harvard,  an  accident  destroyed  the  sight  of  one 
eye,  and  not  long  afterward  the  uninjured  eye  became 
permanently  affected.  A  career  in  the  practice  of  law 
had  to  be  abandoned.  Much  of  his  subsequent  life  was 
spent  in  the  dark.  A  great  part  of  his  historical  labours 
had  to  be  done  with  the  aid  of  readers  and  secretaries. 
The  task  of  mastering  a  language  (he  began  Spanish  at 
twenty-eight)  and  of  collecting  materials  from  libraries  and 
archives  would  have  seemed  to  be  impossible.  Never 
theless  it  was  accomplished.  The  histories  bear  but  little 
evidence  of  the  writer's  physical  infirmities.  They  are 
renowned  for  their  accuracy  and  thoroughness.  Recent 


io6  The  Nineteenth  Century 

ethnological  discovery  and  advancement  in  historical 
method  have,  it  is  true,  necessitated  revision  in  certain 
statements  of  fact  (e.  g.,  regarding  the  social  and  private 
life  of  the  Aztecs) ;  but  that  is  an  accident  of  time.  His 
thoroughness  is  attested  by  Jared  Sparks,  who  knew  of 
no  historian,  "in  any  age  or  language,  whose  researches 
into  the  materials  with  which  he  was  to  work  have  been 
so  extensive,  thorough,  and  profound  as  those  of  Mr. 
Prescott."  But  the  wide  popularity  of  Prescott's  historical 
writings  rests  first  upon  their  literary  merits.  He  wrote 
in  a  clear,  graceful,  and  dignified  style  upon  epochs  and 
personages  that  were  surrounded  by  charm  and  romance. 
His  power  for  pictorial  representation  was  great.  The 
admirable  qualities  of  his  books  strongly  suggest  the  author 
himself.  He  was  cheerful,  amiable,  spontaneous,  warm 
hearted,  and  much  beloved.  At  forty-five,  Sumner  said 
of  him  that  he  possessed  the  "freedom  and  warmth  and 
frolic  of  a  boy."  At  the  same  time,  Prescott's  capacity 
for  self-criticism  and  for  rigorous  discipline  was  unusual. 
Without  these  qualities,  he  would  hardly  have  succeeded 
in  the  face  of  painful  disabilities.  For  many  years  it  was 
his  custom  to  analyse  his  powers  and  weaknesses,  and  to 
formulate  exacting  rules  for  his  own  guidance.  At  twenty- 
eight  he  wrote  in  his  journal:  "To  the  end  of  my  life  I  trust 
I  shall  be  more  avaricious  of  time  and  never  put  up  with 
a  smaller  average  than  seven  hours'  intellectual  occupation 
per  diem."  About  this  time  he  wrote  down  a  list  of  "rules 
for  composition."  Among  them  are  to  be  found  these: 
' '  Rely  upon  myself  for  estimation-  and  criticism  of  my  com 
position;"  "write  what  I  think  without  affectation  upon 
subjects  I  have  examined;"  "never  introduce  what  is 
irrelevant  or  superfluous  or  unconnected  for  the  sake  of 
crowding  in  more  facts."  He  was  early  attracted  toward 
historical  writing,  although  he  devoted  much  time  to  bio 
graphy  and  critical  reviews.  The  interest  in  Spanish  his 
tory  seems  to  have  come  from  Ticknor's  lectures  on  Spanish 


The  Historians  107 

literature,  which  Prescott  heard  at  Harvard.  The  Fer 
dinand  and  Isabella  theme  first  came  to  him  in  1826. 
"The  age  of  Ferdinand,"  he  remarks  at  this  time,  "is  most 
important  as  containing  the  germs  of  the  modern  system 
of  European  politics.  ...  It  is  in  every  respect  an  inter 
esting  and  momentous  period  of  history;  the  materials 
ample,  authentic, — I  will  chew  upon  this  matter,  and 
decide  this  week."  The  decision  came,  however,  only  after 
two  years  of  further  consideration.  With  Irving,  Ticknor, 
and  Motley,  Prescott  stands  as  one  of  the  men  who  gave  to 
the  English-speaking  world  a  clear  and  brilliant  account  of 
the  history  and  literature  of  Spain.  It  is,  however,  a  fact 
of  still  greater  moment  to  American  letters  that  Prescott 
should  have  embodied  in  permanent  form  a  series  of  his 
tories  of  great  men  and  great  events  that  is  the  common 
possession  of  the  Old  World  and  the  New,  and  that  marks 
the  advancement  of  American  historical  writing  beyond  the 
limits  of  national  feeling  and  national  interest. 

John  Lothrop  Motley. — Bancroft,  Prescott,  Motley 
(1814-77),  and  Parkman  were  all  born  and  reared  in  the 
vicinity  of  Boston,  and  all  were  graduated  from  Harvard 
University.  Motley  and  Bancroft  continued  their  studies 
at  Gottingen  and  Berlin.  While  in  Germany,  Motley  en 
joyed  the  friendship  of  Prince  Bismarck,  who  was  his 
fellow-student.  "We  lived,"  said  Bismarck,  "in  the  closest 
intimacy,  sharing  meals  and  outdoor  exercise."  In  1841 
Motley  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  American  Legation 
at  St.  Petersburg;  but  he  soon  relinquished  the  post  and 
returned  to  America.  Ten  years  later  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  Europe,  where  he  remained  for  half  a  decade 
pursuing  historical  studies.  At  the  end  of  this  time 
(1856)  appeared  "The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic:  A 
History."  In  1860  came  the  first  two  volumes  of  "The 
History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  and  in  1868  the 
last  two.  The  continuation  of  the  Dutch  history  came 


io8  The  Nineteenth  Century 

out  in  biographical  form  (1874)  as  "The  Life  and  Death 
of  John  of  Barneveld,  Advocate  of  Holland;  with  a  View  of 
the  Primary  Causes  and  Movements  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War."  Meanwhile,  Motley  had  been  appointed  to  the 
American  Ministry  to  Austria  (1861)  and  to  England 
(1869).  Both  appointments  ended  unhappily.  An  in 
teresting  circumstance  connects  Motley's  career  with 
Prescott's  and,  indirectly,  with  Washington  Irving's.  With 
noble  generosity,  Irving  had  abandoned  his  well-formed 
plan  of  writing  a  Conquest  of  Mexico  when  he  learned, 
through  a  common  friend,  of  Prescott's  intentions  in  the 
same  field.  This  act  involved  real  sacrifice.  "I  had," 
Irving  afterward  confesses,  "  no  other  subject  at  hand  to 
supply  its  place.  I  was  dismounted  from  my  cheval  de 
bataille,  and  have  never  been  completely  mounted  since." 
Prescott  was  presently  to  realise  the  cost  of  Irving's  sur 
render.  For  Motley,  in  turn,  essayed  to  enter  the  field 
made  illustrious  by  the  author  of  "Ferdinand  and  Isa 
bella."  In  ignorance  of  Prescott's  plans  for  "The  History 
of  Philip,"  Motley  began  his  study  of  related  subjects.  The 
news  then  came  to  him  as  a  blow.  "For  I  had  not," 
Motley  says,  "first  made  up  my  mind  to  write  a  history, 
and  then  cast  about  to  take  up  a  subject.  My  subject  had 
taken  me  up,  drawn  me  on,  and  absorbed  me  into  itself." 
Prescott  listened  to  the  younger  man's  proposal  to  retire, 
"with  frank,  ready,  and  liberal  sympathy,"  and  insisted 
that  Motley  should  proceed.  More  than  this,  he  made 
handsome  allusion,  in  the  Preface  to  his  "Philip,"  to  the 
forthcoming  work  on  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands.  Motley 
wrote  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm.  He  loved  liberty.  The 
story  of  a  people  fighting  for  freedom  fired  his  imagination. 
His  ardour  led  him,  naturally,  toward  the  advocacy  of 
favourite  characters  and  parties;  and  the  greater  modera 
tion  of  the  Dutch  historians  themselves  tends  to  support 
the  charge  of  partiality.  But  Motley's  partiality  was 
not  mere  partisanship.  It  rested  upon  a  nice  discrimina- 


The  Historians  109 

tion  of  the  good  and  the  bad,  of  the  noble  and  the  mean. 
His  Dutch  history  is  classic.  It  is  renowned  for  its  scholarly 
qualities  and  for  its  vivid  colouring.  Froude,  without 
previous  knowledge  of  the  writer  or  of  his  work,  placed 
"The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic"  among  ''the  finest 
histories  in  this  or  in  any  language."  While,  by  the  more 
exacting  standards  of  current  schools,  it  is  criticised  for 
its  lack  of  philosophical  insight,  it  is  still  justly  regarded  as 
a  faithful  and  striking  picture  of  an  heroic  people. 

Francis  Parkman. — The  New  England  School  had 
told  the  story  of  the  Spaniard  in  America  and  in  the 
Netherlands.  It  was  further  to  enrich  its  native  literature 
by  another  brilliant  history  of  the  struggle  for  conquest 
of  a  great  nation  in  foreign  lands.  Parkman  (1823-93) 
is  the  historian  of  the  rise  and  decline  of  France's  power 
in  North  America.  Like  Motley,  he  was  captivated  by 
an  impressive  and  dramatic  cycle  of  events,  and— again 
like  Motley — he  possessed  breadth  of  vision  and  tenacity 
of  purpose  sufficient  to  his  task.  Parkman  had  a  passion 
for  the  wilderness; — a  passion  which  he  fed  in  youth  and 
early  manhood  by  excursions,  large  and  small,  to  the 
woods,  the  prairies,  and  the  mountains.  In  his  twenties, 
he  appears,  a  picturesque  figure  in  the  great  West,  living 
and  hunting  with  Indians,  eating  pemmican,  and  playing 
host  at  a  feast  of  dog-meat  and  tea.  In  spite  of  outdoor 
life  and  travel,  Parkman  was  seldom  well.  A  serious 
affection  of  the  eyes,  and  nervous  troubles  which  may 
have  emanated  from  it,  kept  him,  from  his  undergraduate 
days,  either  incapacitated  or  on  the  border-line  of  in- 
validism.  He  was  tortured  till  his  death  by  pain,  lame 
ness,  insomnia,  and  at  times  almost  complete  blindness. 
His  suffering  and  infirmities  recall  Prescott.  It  is  not  easy 
to  decide  which  of  the  two  men  struggled  more  heroically 
against  overwhelming  odds.  As  early  as  his  sophomore 
year  at  Harvard,  Parkman  planned  to  write  the  history 


no  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  the  "Old  French  War"  for  the  conquest  of  Canada; 
"for  here,  as  it  seems  to  me," — so  he  writes — "the  forest 
drama  was  more  stirring  and  the  forest  stage  more  thronged 
with  appropriate  actors  than  in  any  other  passage  of  our 
history."  "The  Oregon  Trail" — an  account  of  his  ad 
ventures  on  the  great  plains  and  beyond — began  to  appear 
in  The  Knickerbocker  Magazine  in  1847,  and  "The  Con 
spiracy  of  Pontiac"  came  out  in  1851.  Later,  the  plan 
widened  to  include  the  whole  course  of  the  conflict  in 
America  between  France  and  England.  The  result  was  a 
series  of  books  unexcelled  in  western  historiography: 
"  The  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World"  (1865),  "  The 
Jesuits  in  North  America"  (1867),  "La  Salle  and  the  Dis 
covery  of  the  Great  West"  (1869),  "The  Old  Regime" 
(1874),  "Count  Front enac  and  New  France  under  Louis 
XIV"  (1877),  "Montcalm  and  Wolfe"  (1884),  and,  finally, 
"A  Half-Century  of  Conflict"  (1892).  The  series  received 
the  general  title,  "France  and  England  in  North  America." 
In  his  "Montcalm  and  Wolfe,"  Parkman  reached  the  height 
of  his  fame.  Wretched  health  turned  the  author's  at 
tention  to  horticultural  diversions.  In  1871  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  horticulture  in  Harvard  University; 
in  1866  he  published  his  famous  "Book  of  Roses."  His 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  scenes  and  peoples  of  whom  he 
wrote  and  an  engaging  and  finished  manner  impart  to  his 
historical  books  an  unusual  vivacity  and  charm.  His 
work,  while  it  is,  as  he  intended,  "a  history  of  the  Ameri 
can  forest,"  is  also  the  history  of  two  powerful  and  opposing 
systems  of  civilisation — "feudal,  militant,  and  Catholic 
France  in  conflict  with  democratic,  industrial,  and  Pro 
testant  England."  Less  impulsive  than  Motley  and  less 
serene  than  Prescott,  Parkman  possessed  at  once  the  ardour 
and  the  restraint  necessary  to  the  vivid  and  impartial 
rendering  of  a  glowing  theme  vastly  important  in  the 
history  of  the  New  World.  Himself  cast  in  an  heroic 
mould  and  exhibiting  a  fine  type  of  the  Puritan  spirit, 


The  Historians 


in 


he  was  at  home  among  chivalrous  men  and  bold  and 
impressive  deeds.  Jameson,  writing  of  him  shortly  before 
his  work  was  finished  (see  "The  History  of  Historical 
Writing  in  America,"  1891),  declares  him  to  be,  "next 
after  one  or  two  who  survived  from  the  preceding  period, 
the  most  conspicuous  figure  in  the  American  historiography 
of  the  last  twenty-five  years,  the  only  historian  who  can 
fairly  be  called  classical." 

Recent     Historical    Writings. — Since    the    Civil    War 

America  has  been  prolific  in  historical  records.  General 
histories  and  local  histories  abound;  histories  of  adminis 
trations,  of  periods,  of  popular  movements,  indefatigable 
and  scholarly  researches  in  politics,  war,  finance,  and  social 
and  economic  institutions.  The  literary  value  of  these 
records  is  not,  however,  to  be  inconsiderately  judged 
from  their  bulk.  Times  and  standards  in  American 
historiography  have  changed.  Among  the  multitude  of 
authors  one  must  not  look  for  many  names  which  may 
be  written  down  with  those  of  Prescott,  Motley,  and  Park- 
man.  Not  that  the  modern  period  is  wanting  in  good 
work  or  able  writers.  These  are  to  be  found  in  abundance. 
But  most  of  the  work  belongs  to  science  and  not  to  letters  ; 
and  besides,  eminence  is  not  fostered  by  the  catholic  dis 
tribution  of  talent  and  training.  Jameson  picks  up  Amrel's 
blunt  opinion  that  "the  era  of  mediocrity  in  all  things  is 
commencing"  and  applies  it  to  American  historians.  At 
the  same  time,  this  wise  critic  inclines  to  the  belief  that 
the  vast  improvement  in  technical  process  and  workman 
ship  realised  within  the  present  generation  is  the  natural 
means  to  the  development  of  a  more  substantial  and  more 
profound  school  of  historians  than  the  West  has  thus  far 
created.  The  term  "mediocrity"  does  not,  indeed,  do 
full  justice  to  the  period  and  the  authors  in  question, 
and  we  must  seek  other  grounds  of  excuse  for  the  brevity 
of  our  review  of  them.  These  grounds  are  found,  first, 


ii2  The  Nineteenth  Century 

in  the  indirect  importance  to  literature  of  the  great  mass 
of  recent  work,  and,  secondly,  in  the  impossibility  of  set 
ting  the  achievements  of  contemporary  workers  in  just 
perspective. 

The  writers,  great  and  little,  of  the  periods  already  sur 
veyed  were,  in  large  measure,  self-trained.  Until  the  last 
two  or  three  decades,  colleges  and  universities  offered 
little  incentive  to  methodical  work  upon  historical  subjects. 
Even  Harvard,  from  whose  doors  went  one  after  another 
the  men  who  were  to  make  the  New  England  School 
famous,  taught  history  only  incidentally.  Now,  an  aca 
demic  school  has  arisen.  Young  men  and  women  are 
trained  in  undergraduate  and  graduate  studies  by  teachers 
who  are  themselves  historical  writers  and  investigators. 
Students  are  taught  the  discriminating  use  of  historical 
instruments,  and  sound  methods  of  reconstruction  and 
interpretation.  The  change  has  been  wrought  under  the 
unequal  pressure  of  external  influence,  emphasis  laid  upon 
scientific  method,  a  quickened  consciousness  of  the  im 
portance  and  dignity  of  American  history,  and,  finally, 
the  example  of  those  graceful  and  inspiring  writers  who 
gave  to  Western  historiography  an  honourable  place  in  the 
world's  literature.  The  academic  school  owes  its  exist 
ence  to  no  single  founder.  It  is,  by  its  nature,  a  school 
of  cooperative  endeavour, — cooperation,  first,  between 
teacher  and  pupil,  and  cooperation,  later,  in  the  conjoint 
and  organised  labour  of  productive  hands  and  brains. 
Among  its  early  advocates  and  promoters  were  Charles 
Kendall  Adams,  university  professor  and  president,  teacher 
and  historian,  who  adapted  the  German  seminary  method 
to  the  American  university;  Henry  Adams,  professor  at 
Harvard  University  and  author  of  a  brilliant  history 
in  nine  volumes  (1889-91)  of  the  country  under  Jefferson 
and  Madison  (1801-17);  Justin  Winsor,  librarian,  bibli 
ographer,  and  editor  of  the  useful  and  scholarly  "Narra 
tive  and  Critical  History  of  America"  (1884-89),  and 


The  Historians  113 

Herbert  Baxter  Adams,  of  Johns  Hopkins,  historian  and 
instructor  of  historical  students.  The  cooperative  labours 
of  the  period  have  borne  abundant  fruit.  Besides  Winsor's 
volumes  should  be  mentioned  "The  American  Nation:  a 
History  from  Original  Sources  by  Associated  Scholars," 
a  gigantic  work  in  twenty-seven  volumes  just  finished 
(1904-8)  under  the  editorship  of  Albert  Bushnell  Hart. 
The  authorship  is  divided  among  a  number  of  competent 
historical  writers.  The  collection  lays  claim  to  being  "the 
first  comprehensive  history  of  the  United  States,  now  com 
pleted,  which  covers  the  whole  period"  from  the  discovery 
of  America  to  the  present.  Similar  undertakings  are, 
however,  in  progress,  and  a  number  of  cooperative  works 
of  smaller  scope  are  already  in  print.  Other  notable  his 
tories  covering  comparatively  long  periods  of  time  are 
Edward  Channing's  "A  History  of  the  United  States,"  to 
be  completed  in  eight  volumes;  a  series  of  nine  volumes 
relating  to  preconstitutional  times  written  by  John  Fiske, 
after  the  manner  of  Parkman,  and  including  "The  Critical 
Period  of  American  History"  (1888),  "The  Beginnings  of 
New  England"  (1889),  " The  American  Revolution "  (1891), 
"The  Discovery  of  America"  (1892),  etc. ;  James  Schouler's 
"History  of  the  United  States  under  the  Constitution" 
(1880-99);  "A  Popular  History  of  the  United  States" 
(1876-81),  by  William  Cullen  Bryant  and  Sydney  H. 
Gay;  "A  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States  from 
the  Revolution  to  the  Civil  War"  (6  of  the  7  volumes  pub 
lished,  1883-1906),  by  John  B.  McMaster;  "The  Consti 
tutional  and  Political  History  of  the  United  States," 
(1877-92),  by  Hermann  E.  von  Hoist,  and  "A  History  of 
the  American  People"  (1902),  by  President  Woodrow 
Wilson  of  Princeton  University.  Channing's  attempt  to 
cover,  by  the  labours  of  a  single  competent  scholar,  the 
entire  history  of  the  country  is  comparable  to  that  of 
George  Bancroft.  John  Fiske  wrote  readable  and  popular 
narratives  of  historical  events.  He  did  much,  both  by 


n4  The  Nineteenth  Century 

books  and  lectures,  to  arouse  general  interest  in  matters 
of  American  life  past  and  present.  McMaster's  substantial 
and  illuminating  history  is  social  rather  than  political. 
He  seeks  to  portray  the  whole  life  of  the  people.  Von 
Hoist's  aim  was,  on  the  other  hand,  political.  The  author 
was  a  German-American.  He  held,  among  academic  posts, 
professorships  at  Freiburg  and  the  University  of  Chicago. 
His  critical  review,  often  disparaging  to  democratic  insti 
tutions,  may  be  taken  as  a  counterblast  to  the  ebullient 
patriotism  of  earlier,  native  writers.  As  the  work  of  a 
foreign  observer  of  American  affairs,  it  suggests  the  reflec 
tions  of  de  Tocqueville,  of  James  Bryce,  and  of  Goldwin 
Smith.  President  Wilson's  five  volumes  contain  a  wise 
and  judicial  commentary,  in  the  form  of  a  long  and  attrac 
tive  essay,  on  the  main  course  of  events  since  the  days  of 
discovery.  For  the  multitude  of  American  historical 
writers  who  have  treated  single  epochs,  space  permits 
mention  of  only  one  or  two  names.  James  Ford  Rhodes' 
"History  of  the  United  States  from  the  Compromise  of 
1850"  (7  volumes,  1902—6),  the  work  of  "nineteen  years' 
almost  exclusive  devotion,"  is  commonly  regarded  as  the 
most  thorough  and  best  balanced  study  of  the  Civil  War, 
its  causes  and  its  consequences.  Henry  Adams  has, 
in  his  "History  of  the  United  States,"  etc.,  investigated 
with  competence  and  penetration  the  administrations  of 
Jefferson  and  Madison. 

This  meagre  list  of  the  more  important  productions 
of  the  academic  school  clearly  reveals  the  attraction  of 
the  American  theme  for  the  present  American  historian. 
Capable  and  impressive  studies  of  foreign  subjects  there 
have  been,  it  is  true; — David  Jayne  Hill's  "History  of 
Diplomacy  in  the  International  Development  of  Europe" 
and  Henry  C.  Lea's  work  on  the  medieval  church  are  con 
spicuous  instances; — but  the  great  mass  of  research  and 
writing  has  been  gathered  at  home.  Governmental  affairs 
and  political  events  loom  large.  Less  interest  has  been  taken 


The  Novelists  115 

in  the  subtler  phases  of  national  character  and  individual 
motive;  although  Fiske  and  McMaster  and  Woodrow  Wilson 
and  certain  of  the  best  biographers  (whose  important  ser 
vice  to  literature  deserves  separate  consideration)  repre 
sent  a  current  tendency  toward  reflective  and  philosophical 
writing  of  a  literary  quality,  which  augurs  well  for  the 
future  of  American  historiography. 

II.      THE     NOVELISTS 

The  Beginnings. — American  fiction  was  one  of  the 
latest  types  of  native  literature  to  appear.  The  hard 
conditions  of  life  imposed  on  the  colonists  by  the  neces 
sity  of  clearing  the  forests  and  keeping  the  Indians  in 
check  were  evidently  unfavourable  to  sustained  efforts  in 
imaginative  writing.  And  there  were  other  reasons  for 
the  late  growth  of  the  novel.  Except  as  they  had  a  re 
ligious  turn  or  an  evident  moral,  stories  were  likely  to  be 
looked  upon  by  the  Puritans  as  a  species  of  useless  frivolity, 
which  could  have  no  part  in  the  saving  of  souls. 1  Again, 
in  the  struggle  with  the  mother  country  the  robust  and 
scholarly  intellects  of  America  had  other  matters  to  think 
of  besides  the  elements  of  pure  literature.  The  rights  of 
man,  the  basis  of  resistance  to  tyranny,  the  principles  of 
statecraft,  the  elements  of  democracy,  were  among  the 
interests  that  absorbed  the  Washingtons,  the  Otises,  and 
the  Hamiltons  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
But  perhaps  the  most  important  reason  for  the  tardy 

*  In  her  valuable  study  of  "The  Early  American  Novel,"  New 
York,  1907  (published  after  these  pages  were  in  type),  Miss  Lillie 
Deming  Loshe  remarks :  "  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  nearly  all  the 
directly  didactic  novels  are  by  known  writers — writers  of  literary  or 
educational  importance  in  their  day — while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
stories  designed  chiefly  for  amusement,  but  related  to  their  didactic 
contemporaries  by  similarity  of  sentiment  and  manner,  are  almost 
invariably  by  unknown  authors. "  Miss  Loshe  enumerates  only 
thirty-five  novels  published  before  1801, 


n6  The  Nineteenth  Century 

appearance  of  American  fiction  was  the  lack  of  tradition 
and  legend.  Of  this  Hawthorne  complained  as  late  as 
1859,  in  the  preface  to  "The  Marble  Faun": 

No  author,  without  a  trial,  can  conceive  of  the  difficulty  of 
writing  a  romance  about  a  country  where  there  is  no  shadow,  no 
antiquity,  no  mystery,  no  picturesque  and  gloomy  wrong,  nor  any 
thing  but  a  commonplace  prosperity,  in  broad  and  simple  daylight, 
as  is  happily  the  case  with  my  dear  native  land.  It  will  be  very 
long,  I  trust,  before  romance-writers  may  find  congenial  and  easily 
handled  themes,  either  in  the  annals  of  our  stalwart  republic,  or  in 
any  characteristic  and  probable  events  of  our  individual  lives. 
Romance  and  poetry,  ivy,  lichens,  and  wall-flowers  need  ruin  to 
make  them  grow. 

Thus  it  was  that  for  a  long  time  Defoe  and  Fielding,  Smol 
lett  and  Sterne  found  no  imitators  in  America.  The  American 
novel-reader,  for  the  most  part,  was  content  with  British 
provender,  and  satisfied  his  appetite  for  the  marvellous 
with  Walpole's  "Castle  of  Otranto,"  Lewis'  "Monk,'*  and 
Mrs.  Radcliffe's  "Romance of  the  Forest "  and  "The Myste 
ries  of  Udolpho."  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
several  writers  essayed  the  novel,  but  not  with  lasting 
success.  In  "The  Foresters"  (published  serially  in  The 
Columbian  Magazine,  and  in  book  form  in  1792),  Jeremy 
Belknap  (1774-98)  produced  an  ingenious  though  trivial 
allegorical  tale  of  the  colonisation  of  America  and  the  rebel 
lion  of  the  colonies.  In  this,  Peter  Bullfrog  stood  for  New 
York,  Ethan  Greenwood  for  Vermont,  Walter  Pipeweed  for 
Virginia,  Charles  Indigo  for  South  Carolina,  and  so  on. 
Ann  Eliza  Bleecker  (1752-83)  was  the  author  of  "The 
History  of  Maria  Kittle,"  which  in  the  form  of  a  letter  sets 
forth  some  harrowing  experiences  among  the  savages 
during  the  French  and  Indian  War;  and  of  "The  Story  of 
Henry  and  Anne,"  a  tale,  "founded  on  fact,"  of  the  mis 
fortunes  of  some  German  peasants  who  finally  settled  in 
America ;  both  of  these  were  published  posthumously  in  her 
"Works"  in  1793.  Mrs.  Susanna  Haswell  Rowson's 


The  Novelists  117 

''Charlotte  Temple"  (1790),  a  story  of  love,  betrayal,  and 
desertion,  despite  its  absurdly  stilted  phrases  and  its  long- 
drawn  melancholy,  has  ever  been  popular  with  a  certain 
class  of  readers;  the  editor  of  the  latest  edition  (1905), 
Mr.  Francis  W.  Halsey,  has  examined  104  editions,  and  his 
list  is  incomplete.  An  avowed  antidote  to  "  Charlotte 
Temple,"  Mrs.  Tabitha  G.  Tenney's  satirical  "Female 
Quixotism"  (1808),  suggests  to  Professor  Trent  "an  ex 
purgated  Smollett";  it  is  now  unknown.  Mrs.  Hannah 
W.  Foster,  the  wife  of  a  clergyman  in  Massachusetts,  wrote 
"The  Coquette,  or  The  History  of  Eliza  Wharton,  a  Novel 
Founded  on  Fact"  (1797),  a  story  of  desertion,  showing  the 
marked  influence  of  Richardson.  In  the  same  year,  ap 
peared  "The  Algerine  Captive,"  by  Royall  Tyler,  who  was 
one  of  the  first  to  turn  to  American  life  as  a  fruitful  subject 
for  fiction.  His  story  is  a  broadly  humorous  picaresque 
tale,  of  the  Smollett  type,  which  introduces  rather  too 
many  wearisome  details  of  customs  in  Algiers;  a  fault  for 
which  his  generally  spirited  style  and  his  powerful  descrip 
tion  of  the  horrors  of  a  slave-ship  partially  atone. 

Hugh  Henry  Brackenridge  (1748-1816),  the  class 
mate  at  Princeton  of  James  Madison  and  Philip  Freneau, 
wrote  "Modern  Chivalry,  or  The  Adventures  of  Captain 
John  Farrago  and  Teague  O'Regan,  His  Servant"  (Phila 
delphia  and  Pittsburgh,  published  in  four  parts,  1792-7), 
a  modern  "Don  Quixote"  narrating  his  experiences  in  the 
Whisky  Insurrection  of  1794.  Though  widely  read  in  its 
day,  especially  by  artisans  and  farmers,  its  literary  worth 
was  not  sufficient  to  preserve  it.  "The  Gamesters,"  pub 
lished  in  1805  by  Mrs.  Catharine  Warren,  was  likewise 
popular  in  its  day;  it  attempted  "to  blend  instruction 
with  amusement." 

Charles  Brockden  Brown. — The  history  of  the  novel 
in  America,  therefore,  properly  begins  with  Charles 
Brockden  Brown  (1771-1810),  who  has  been  called  "the 


n8  The  Nineteenth  Century 

first  professional  man  of  letters  and  important  creative 
writer  of  the  English-speaking  portion  of  the  New  World." 
He  was  born  in  Philadelphia  of  a  good  Quaker  family; 
just  forty  years  earlier,  his  uncle,  Charles  Brockden,  had 
drawn  up  the  constitution  of  the  old  Philadelphia  Library 
Company.  From  early  childhood,  books  were  familiar  to 
the  youthful  Brown,  who  became  an  omnivorous  reader, 
and  at  Robert  Proud's  school  undermined  his  health  by 
excessive  devotion  to  reading  and  study,  so  that  he  was 
always  an  invalid.  He  took  up  the  study  of  law,  but  soon 
abandoned  it,  despite  the  protest  of  his  family,  for  the 
career  of  "book-making."  After  some  writing  of  verse 
and  of  essays,  he  published  in  1798  a  successful  novel, 
"Wieland,  or  The  Transformation,"  and  at  once  followed 
this  with  five  others,  "Ormond,  or  The  Secret  Witness," 
(1799),  "Arthur  Mervyn,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Year  1793" 
(1799-1800),  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  the  ravages 
of  the  yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia,  "Edgar  Huntly,  or 
The  Adventures  of  a  Sleep-Walker,"  "Clara  Howard" 
(1801),  and  "Jane  Talbot"  (published  in  England  in 
1804).  From  1798  till  1801,  Brown  lived  amid  congenial 
surroundings  in  New  York;  in  the  former  year  he  nearly 
died  of  yellow  fever,  to  which  his  friend  Dr.  Elihu  H.  Smith 
succumbed.  Returning  to  Philadelphia  in  1801,  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  there;  marrying  happily  in  1804, 
editing  The  Literary  Magazine,  and  writing  political 
pamphlets  and  works  on  geography  and  Roman  history, 
until  consumption  brought  his  busy  and  useful  life  to  a 
premature  end. 

Brown's  novels  mostly  belong  with  the  "tales  of  terror" 
so  popular  in  his  day.  A  radical  thinker  and  analyst,  he 
rejects  supernatural  agencies  in  his  explanation  of  events, 
and  relies  wholly  on  natural  causes;  but  this  does  not 
diminish  the  number  of  marvels  in  his  tales.  The  plots 
of  one  or  two  of  his  stories  will  give  an  idea  of  the  char 
acter  of  all.  The  scene  of  "Wieland"  is  laid  on  the  banks 


The  Novelists  119 

of  the  Schuylkill,  in  Pennsylvania.  The  Wielands  are  a 
cultivated  German  family.  Wieland's  father  has  died 
mysteriously  by  what  is  explained  as  self-  or  spontaneous 
combustion,  and  the  son  has  inherited  a  melancholy  and 
superstitious  mind,  which  develops  into  fanaticism.  The 
family  hear  strange  voices  giving  commands  or  warnings 
or  telling  of  events  beyond  the  reach  of  human  knowledge. 
A  mysterious  man,  Carwin,  appears,  with  such  powers  of 
pleasing  that  he  becomes  very  intimate  with  the  family. 
At  length  Wieland,  at  the  command  of  what  he  takes  to 
be  a  heavenly  voice,  sacrifices  to  God  his  wife  and  children. 
Confined  in  a  maniac's  dungeon,  he  bears  his  fate  with  a 
sense  of  moral  exaltation.  Having  escaped,  he  attempts 
to  offer  up  also  his  sister,  the  narrator  of  the  story,  when 
he  learns  that  he  has  been  deceived  by  the  ventriloquism 
of  Carwin,  whom  malice  has  thus  led  to  trick  the  family. 
In  a  frenzy,  Wieland  kills  himself;  Carwin  disappears;  and 
the  story  ends  with  the  marriage  of  the  sister  and  Pleyel, 
a  brother  of  Wieland's  late  wife  and  now  a  widower.  Less 
powerful  than  "Wieland,"  but  still  superior  to  Brown's 
other  works,  is  "Ormond."  An  artist,  Stephen  Dudley, 
engaging  in  pharmacy  to  support  his  family,  is  brought  to 
beggary  through  the  villainy  of  his  partner.  His  daughter 
Constantia  bears  up  bravely  through  severe  trials.  Just 
when  life  appears  brighter,  Ormond  comes  upon  the  scene, 
a  mysteriously  powerful  man,  much  like  Falkland  in 
Godwin's  "Caleb  Williams,"  of  great  wealth,  strong  mind, 
and  base  morals;  he  deserts  Helena  Cleves,  who  commits 
suicide,  and  pursues  Constantia.  Stephen  Dudley  is 
murdered  by  an  unknown  hand.  Having  a  legacy  from 
Helena,  Constantia  is  about  to  sail  for  Europe  with  her 
friend  (who  narrates  the  story)  when  Ormond,  finding  her 
invincible,  assaults  her  in  a  lonely  house  and  meets  death 
by  her  hand,  after  he  has  himself  slain  Craig,  now  revealed 
as  the  assassin  of  Dudley  at  Ormond' s  instigation.  Con 
stantia  afterward  lives  quietly  with  her  friend  in  Europe. 


120  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Brown's  plots  are  usually  disfigured  by  irrelevant  incidents 
and  superfluous  characters;  he  frequently  changed  his 
plans  and  even  his  heroines,  and,  writing  with  great  rapidity, 
often  with  a  greedy  printer  at  his  elbow,  he  utterly  failed 
to  weld  together  the  elements  of  his  stories  and  often  to 
give  them  proper  motivation.  His  characters  are  drawn 
in  bold  and  clear  outlines,  but  are  frequently  uninteresting 
— being  too  sentimental  or  inconsistent,  or  given  to  long 
and  prosy  soliloquies.  It  cannot  be  affirmed  that  Brown 
understood  human  nature  well.  Of  style  he  had  none; 
his  pages  are  innocent  of  epigram  or  humorous  turn;  he 
employs  very  little  dialogue  and  makes  but  scanty  and 
awkward  use  of  dialect.  Yet  in  certain  passages,  in  de 
scribing  great  crises,  he  exhibits  considerable  vividness 
and  power.  Brown's  chief  merit  consists  in  the  sense  of 
reality  with  which  he  contrives  to  invest  his  scenes  of  gloom 
and  terror. 

The  power  possessed  by  this  rare  genius,  says  Mr.  James  H. 
Morse,1  of  throwing  gloomy  characteristics  into  his  theme,  was 
equalled  by  no  other  American  writer.  In  the  matter  of  morbid 
analysis,  Poe,  in  comparison  with  Brown,  was  superficial,  Haw 
thorne  was  cheerful,  and  the  modern  school  of  French  writers  are 
feeble.  With  Poe,  we  can  see  that  the  gloom  came  by  an  effort 
of  a  spurred  imagination;  with  Hawthorne,  that  it  was  the  work 
of  an  artistic  sense;  but  with  Brown,  it  seems  to  have  been  con 
stitutional — the  gift  at  once  of  temperament  and  circumstances. 

Brown  was  an  admirer  of  William  Godwin  and  obviously 
imitated  not  only  his  method  of  developing  characters  but 
also  his  style.  It  may  be  added  that  Brown  in  turn  found 
many  readers  in  England,  where  several  of  his  novels  were 
republished  and  where,  as  we  have  seen,  "Jane  Talbot" 
was  first  published.  Professor  Dowden  quotes  Peacock 
as  saying  that  of  all  the  works  with  which  Shelley  was 
familiar,  those  which  took  the  deepest  root  in  his  mind 
were  Brown's  four  novels,  Schiller's  "Robbers,"  and 
»  The  Century  Magazine,  xxvi.  289. 


The  Novelists  121 

Goethe's  "Faust."  Brown's  influence  upon  subsequent 
American  writers,  moreover,  was  not  inconsiderable,  and 
his  place  in  our  literature,  if  not  high,  is  at  least  honourable. 

John  Davis,  an  Englishman  about  whom  little  is  known, 
wrote  several  novels  of  American  life,  most  of  which  were 
published  here,  and  became  somewhat  popular.  He  lived 
in  the  United  States  from  1798  till  1802,  and  travelled  over 
a  large  part  of  the  country.  His  first  novel,  "The  Original 
Letters  of  Ferdinand  and  Elizabeth"  (1798),  was  a  con 
ventional  story  of  seduction  and  suicide.  It  was  followed 
by  "The  Farmer  of  New  Jersey"  (1800),  "The  First  Settlers 
of  Virginia"  (1805),  a  pioneer  historical  novel,  crude  and 
ill  managed,  "Walter  Kennedy,  an  American  Tale" 
(London,  1805),  and  "The  Post  Captain"  (1813).  The 
most  that  can  be  said  of  these  stories  is  that  their  author  was 
shrewd  and  observant,  and  had  some  journalistic  skill. 

Mrs.  Sally  Keating  Wood  (1760-1855),  wife  of  General 
Abiel  Wood,  of  Maine,  may  be  mentioned  as  the  author 
of  "Julia  and  the  Illuminated  Baron"  (1800),  which  re 
calls  the  mysterious  evil  power  and  atheistic  tendencies 
attributed  to  the  Bavarian  order  of  the  Illuminati,  estab 
lished  in  1775,  which,  though  suppressed  in  1780  by  the 
Elector,  was  supposed  to  have  secretly  persisted  and  spread 
over  Europe.  Mrs.  Wood  wrote  also  "Dorval,  or  The 
Speculator"  (1801),  "Amelia,  or  The  Influence  of  Virtue" 
(1802),  "Ferdinand  and  Elmira,  a  Russian  Story"  (1804), 
and  "Tales  of  the  Night"  (1827),  besides  several  novels 
that  were  never  published.  Mrs.  Wood  placed  many  of 
her  scenes  in  Europe. 

Isaac  Mitchell. — At  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  in  1811, 
was  published  in  two  volumes  "The  Asylum,  or  Alonzo 
and  Melissa,  an  American  Tale,  Founded  on  Fact."  Of 


122  The  Nineteenth  Century 

the  author  of  this  Gothic  romance,  Isaac  Mitchell,1  little 
is  known  save  that  he  was  successively  the  editor  of  The 
Farmer's  Journal,  The  Political  Barometer,  and  The  Re 
publican  Crisis,  all  of  Albany,  New  York,  and  that  after 
losing  his  position  through  political  changes,  he  moved  to 
Poughkeepsie.  The  story  was  later  abridged  and  com 
pressed  into  one  volume  by  Daniel  Jackson,  Jr.  (Mitchell's 
name  disappearing  from  the  title-page),  and  in  this  form 
was  long  popular  throughout  America;  Mr.  Reed  thinks 
that  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  a  new  edition  ap 
peared  practically  every  year.  The  narrative  is  full  of 
elaborate  descriptions  of  nature. 

Washington  Irving. — In  general  Irving  will  be  discussed 
rather  with  the  essayists  than  with  the  novelists;  but 
his  stories  and  tales  must  be  considered  here.  They  have 
contributed  largely  if  not  chiefly  to  his  enduring  reputation. 
His  first  book,  "Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York" 
(1809),  in  which  he  works  out  a  grotesquely  humorous 
drama  of  the  Dutch  fathers  wrestling  with  the  weighty 
problems  of  statecraft,  is  of  course  in  the  main  fictitious. 
No  doubt  it  is  at  times  pretentious  or  overdone,  and  the 
humour  is  occasionally  a  little  too  broad  for  the  decorum 
of  to-day;  but  the  irrepressible  spirit  of  comedy,  the  de 
lightfully  burlesqued  descriptions  of  stolid  Dutch  character, 
the  vivid  though  leisurely  narrative,  give  it  a  supreme  place 
in  our  humorous  literature.  "Rip  Van  Winkle"  and 
"The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow"  are  doubtless  the  most 
read  parts  of  "The  Sketch  Book"  and  have  long  since 
become  classics;  no  more  faithful  narratives  of  quaint  old 
Dutch  life  have  ever  been  written.  In  them  the  boisterous 
exuberance  of  the  "History"  gives  way  to  a  more  graceful, 
refined,  and  mature  style,  which  invests  the  homely  sim 
plicity  and  contentment  of  colonial  Dutch  life  with  a 

i  See  Mr.  Edward  B.  Reed's  note  in  The  Nation,  December  8, 
.  458. 


The  Novelists  123 

kind  of  idyllic  charm.  Only  a  little  less  successful  were 
Irving' s  other  stories  of  early  New  Amsterdam  life — 
notably  "The  Money-Diggers"  in  "Tales  of  a  Traveller," 
and  "Dolph  Heyliger"  in  "Bracebridge  Hall."  Inferior 
because  more  conventional  and  less  spontaneous  are  the 
first  three  parts  of  the  "Tales";  yet  even  here,  in  dealing 
with  the  sentimental  and  the  terrible,  Irving  compares 
favourably  with  other  story-tellers  of  his  day.  In  the 
stories  scattered  through  "The  Alhambra, "  Irving  showed 
clearly  that  he  had  found  another  source  of  inspiration 
in  the  romantic  legends  of  Spain  and  the  Moors — legends 
full  of  Oriental  mystery  and  of  the  splendid  glories  of 
old  Spain,  so  charmingly  and  truthfully  set  forth  that  the 
Spaniards  themselves  spoke  of  him  as  "the  poet  Irving." 
And  "poet"  he  is  in  the  large  sense  that  he  has  created 
imperishable  scenes  and  characters  in  that  realm  of  romance 
in  which  we  delight  to  wander,  far  from  the  prosaic  world 
and  the  madding  crowd. 

James  Kirke  Paulding. — A  contrast  with  Irving  in  more 
than  one  respect  is  afforded  by  James  K.  Paul  ding  (1778- 
1860),  the  friend  and  collaborator  of  Washington  Irving 
and  the  brother-in-law  of  William  Irving.  The  author 
of  "The  Sketch  Book"  gave  his  whole  life  to  the  profession 
of  letters;  for  Paulding,  on  the  other  hand,  literary  com 
position  was  only  an  avocation.  The  genial  humour  of 
Irving,  too,  differs  from  the  satirical  and  ironical  vein  too 
often  indulged  in  by  his  friend.  Born  in  Dutchess  County, 
New  York,  Paulding  went  to  New  York  City  while  a  young 
man  and  became  associated  with  the  Irvings  in  writing 
Salmagundi,  the  success  of  which  gave  Paulding  confidence 
in  himself  and  led  him  to  further  literary  efforts.  "The 
Diverting  History  of  John  Bull  and  Brother  Jonathan" 
(1812),  a  loosely  constructed  and  amateurish  satire  in  the 
style  of  Arbuthnot,  became  very  popular  both  in  America 
and  in  England.  "  Koningsmarke,  the  Long  Finne  "  (1823) , 


124  The  Nineteenth  Century 

now  remembered  only  for  the  familiar  assertion  that  "Peter 
Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers,"  was  a  burlesque 
on  Cooper's  "Pioneers.  "  Paulding's  most  successful  work, 
which  deserves  to  live,  was  "The  Dutchman's  Fireside" 
(1831),  in  which  are  charming  descriptions  of  quaint  Dutch 
customs  and  personages,  of  the  picturesque  scenery  of  the 
Hudson,  and  of  the  vast  expanse  of  wilderness  that  stretched 
to  the  westward.  In  general,  however,  Paulding's  work 
was  characterised  by  a  too  harsh  and  obstreperous  Ameri 
canism,  an  immoderate  and  amusing  hostility  to  foreigners, 
and  a  carelessness  of  workmanship  which  prevented  it 
from  enduring  long. 

Samuel  Woodworik. — As  a  curiosity  must  here  be  men 
tioned  the  long-forgotten  "Champions  of  Freedom"  (1816) 
of  Samuel  Woodworth  (1785-1842).  It  was  his  one  essay 
in  fiction;  a  history  of  the  War  of  1812  in  the  style  of  a 
romance.  It  must  be  described  as  a  chaotic  miscellany, 
blending  wild  romance  with  commonplace  realism,  and 
conducting  the  reader  from  ballroom  to  battlefield  and 
back  again  with  the  least  possible  suspicion  of  method  or 
motive. 

John  Neal. — Born  in  Portland,  Maine,  and  beginning 
life  as  a  shop-boy  in  Boston,  John  Neal  (1793-1876)  be 
came  in  turn  a  wholesale  dry-goods  merchant,  a  lawyer, 
and  a  voluminous  critic,  poet,  and  novelist.  He  boasted 
that  in  thirty-six  years  he  had  written  enough  altogether 
to  fill  a  hundred  octavo  volumes ;  yet  to-day  he  is  little 
more  than  a  name.  His  first  novel,  "Keep  Cool,"  which 
he  afterward  spoke  of  with  justice  as  a  "paltry,  contemptij 
ble  affair, ' '  appeared  in  1 8 1 7 .  His  best  novels  are  ' '  Seventy- 
Six"  (1823),  a  lively  story  of  the  Revolution,  "Rachel 
Dyer"  (1828),  a  story  of  the  Salem  Witchcraft,  and  "The 
Down-Easters"  (1833),  an  extravagant  tale  which  deals 
with  the  ways  of  steamboat  passengers,  and  into  which 


The  Novelists  125 

he  manages  to  introduce  plenty  of  horrors.  Neal  has 
been  well  styled  "the  universal  Yankee,  whittling  his  way 
through  creation,  with  a  half-genius  for  everything,  a 
robust  genius  for  nothing."  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  originator  of  the  woman's  suffrage  movement,  the 
first  person  to  establish  a  gymnasium  in  America,  and  the 
first  to  encourage  Edgar  A.  Poe. 1 

James  Fenimore  Cooper. — The  first  American  to  win 
universal  recognition  as  a  powerful  novelist  was  James 
Fenimore  Cooper.  Born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  on 
September  15,  1789,  of  English  Quaker  and  Swedish 
parentage,  he  was  taken,  when  a  year  old,  to  the  Central 
New  York  wilderness,  where  his  father,  having  become 
the  owner  of  large  tracts  of  land,  had  laid  out  the  village 
of  Cooperstown.  Here,  on  the  shores  of  the  beautiful 
Otsego  Lake,  in  a  motley  frontier  settlement,  the  boy 
Cooper  passed  his  earliest  years.  In  due  time  entering 
the  family  of  an  Albany  clergyman  as  a  private  pupil, 
Cooper  proceeded  in  1803  to  Yale  College,  where  he  be 
came  a  member  of  the  class  of  1806.  An  escapade  in 
his  third  year  led  to  his  dismissal;  after  which  he  served 
a  marine  apprenticeship  of  a  year  and  then  entered  the 
navy,  serving  as  midshipman  for  nearly  four  years.  In  1 8 1 1 , 
he  married  Susan  A.  De  Lancey,  a  lady  of  Huguenot 
and  Tory  family,  and  a  sister  of  Bishop  De  Lancey  of 
Western  New  York;  and  at  her  request  resigned  his  com 
mission,  to  become  an  amateur  farmer,  successively  at 
Mamaroneck,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  at  Cooperstown, 
and  at  Scarsdale,  Westchester  County,  all  in  New  York 
State.  Thus  he  arrived  at  the  age  of  thirty  without 
having  even  dreamed  of  a  career  of  authorship.  One 
day,  reading  a  novel  descriptive  of  English  society,  he 
impatiently  threw  down  the  book  and  exclaimed  that  he 
could  write  a  better  story  himself.  Challenged  by  his  wife 

1  In  a  note  in  the  Boston  Yankee  for  September,  1829. 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

to  do  so,  he  wrote  and  published  "Precaution"  (1820), 
a  dull  and  conventional  story  of  English  social  life,  pur 
porting  to  be  the  work  of  an  Englishman.  Although 
the  novel  was  not  very  successful,  his  friends  urged  Cooper 
to  try  again,  and  this  time  to  write  of  scenes  of  which  he 
had  some  personal  knowledge.  The  publication  of  "The 
Spy,  a  Tale  of  the  Neutral  Ground,"  in  December,  1821, 
marks  the  beginning  of  a  long  series  of  successes.  "The 
Spy"  met  with  a  large  sale  both  in  America  and  in  Eng 
land.  It  was  soon  translated  into  most  of  the  cultivated 
languages  of  Europe;  and  its  popularity  has  never  greatly 
waned.  It  is  a  story  of  the  American  Revolution,  in 
which  the  patriotic  hero,  Harvey  Birch,  signally  aids  the 
American  cause  and  exhibits  a  rare  combination  of  the 
spy  and  the  gentleman. 

During  the  twenty-nine  years  remaining  to  Cooper,  he 
produced  thirty-two  further  volumes,  chiefly  romances. 
Of  these,  many  are  now  rarely  read,  but  the  following 
have  retained  their  popularity  for  successive  generations: 

"The  Spy,"  already  referred  to. 

"The  Leatherstocking Tales,"  comprising  (in  the  chrono 
logical  order  not  of  their  production,  but  of  the  narrative) : 

"The  Deerslayer,  or  The  First  War  Path,"  1841. 

"The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  a  Narrative  of  1757,"  1826. 

"The   Pathfinder,  or  The  Inland  Sea,"    1840. 

"The  Pioneers,"  1823,  and  "The  Prairie,"  1827;  and  ten 
volumes  of  the  "Sea  Tales": 

"The  Pilot,"  1823. 

"The  Red  Rover,"  1828. 

"The  Two  Admirals,"  1842. 

"Homeward  Bound,  or  The  Chase,"  1838. 

"The  Water- Witch,  or  The  Skimmer  of  the  Seas,"  1830. 

"The  Wing-and-Wing,  or  Le  Feu-Follet,"  1842. 

"Afloat  and  Ashore,"  1844. 

"Miles  Wallingford, "  1844,  published  in  England  as 
"  Lucy  Hardinge."  A  sequel  to  "Afloat  and  Ashore." 


The  Novelists  127 

"Jack  Tier,  or  The  Florida  Reefs,"  1848. 

"The  Sea  Lions,  or  The  Lost  Sealers,"  1849. 

The  popularity  which  Cooper  achieved,  and  which 
reached  its  height  with  the  publication  of  "The  Last  of 
the  Mohicans,"  was  most  remarkable;  no  other  American 
has  ever  enjoyed  anything  like  it.  Not  only  were  his 
stories  read  in  well-nigh  every  household,  but  they  were 
promptly  dramatised,  and  furnished  subjects  for  numerous 
paintings  and  poetical  effusions.  In  Europe,  his  fame 
fairly  rivalled  that  of  Scott.  In  1833,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse, 
the  inventor  of  the  electric  telegraph,  wrote:  "In  every 
city  of  Europe  that  I  visited  the  works  of  Cooper  were 
conspicuously  placed  in  the  windows  of  every  bookshop. 
They  are  published,  as  soon  as  he  produces  them,  in  thirty- 
four  different  places  in  Europe.  They  have  been  seen  by 
American  travellers  in  the  languages  of  Turkey  and  Persia, 
in  Constantinople,  in  Egypt,  at  Jerusalem,  at  Ispahan. " 

In  1822  Cooper  removed  with  his  family  to  New  York, 
in  order  to  be  near  his  publisher  and  to  put  his  daughters 
into  school.  There  he  founded  a  club,  commonly  known 
as  the  Bread  and  Cheese,  to  which  many  of  the  noted 
men  of  the  time  belonged.  The  years  1826-33  he  spent 
in  Europe,  being  for  a  part  of  this  time  United  States 
consul  at  Lyons.  On  his  return,  he  lived  a  few  winters 
in  New  York;  he  then  took  up  his  permanent  residence 
at  Otsego  Hall,  Cooperstown,  where  he  died  in  September, 
1851. 

In  his  later  years,  Cooper  presented  the  singular  spectacle 
of  a  popular  novelist  who  was  the  most  cordially  hated 
man  of  his  time.  The  fact  is  significant  and  helps  to  ac 
count  for  the  failure  of  many  of  Cooper's  later  stories. 
An  ardent  lover  of  his  country  and  its  republican  institu 
tions,  he  boldly  rebuked  the  ignorance  and  supercilious 
condescension  of  European  critics;  he  wrote  "The  Bravo" 
(1831),  "The  Heidenmauer"  (1832),  and  "The  Headsman" 
(1833),  f°r  the  avowed  purpose  of  assailing  monarchical 


128  The  Nineteenth  Century 

and  praising  democratic  institutions,  and  kept  this  purpose 
in  mind  much  too  constantly  to  produce  artistic  work.  On 
his  return  to  America,  contrasting  the  restless  exertion  and 
bustle,  the  material  progress  which  obscured  higher  ideals 
than  money-making,  with  the  leisure  and  dignified  culture 
of  European  lands,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  speak  plainly  of  the 
defects  in  the  American  character.  This  naturally  brought 
him  much  abuse  from  the  press;  and  an  unfortunate  dis 
pute  with  the  citizens  of  Cooperstown  over  the  ownership 
of  Three-Mile  Point  on  Otsego  Lake,  though  the  right  was 
wholly  on  his  side,  only  made  him  more  intensely  disliked. 

In  the  early  '4o's,  certain  issues  arose  in  New  York  State 
between  the  tenants  of  the  old  Patroons  who  held  their 
large  estates  under  original  grants,  and  their  landlords,  the 
tenants  attempting  to  secure  under  State  legislation  a 
title  in  fee  to  their  rented  lands.  Cooper,  whose  family 
interests  were  themselves  likely  to  be  affected  by  these 
claims,  threw  himself  with  full  force  and  bitterness  into 
the  contest.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  magazine  articles 
and  speeches,  he  devoted  three  volumes  to  the  presentation 
of  the  claims  of  the  landlords,  volumes  which  are  now  read 
but  little,  excepting  by  special  students  of  the  subject. 
They  are  entitled  respectively : 

"Satanstoe,  or  The  Littlepage  Manuscripts,"  1845; 

"The  Chainbearer, "  1846;  and 

"The  Redskins,  or  Indian  and  Injin,"  1846. 

"The  Ways  of  the  Hour"  (1850)  was  also  a  novel  with 
a  purpose,  which  overweighted  its  interest  as  a  story;  the 
purpose  was  the  reform  of  court  procedure  in  the  State  of 
New  York. 

In  "Homeward  Bound"  and  its  sequel,  "Home  as 
Found"  (1838),  the  latter  being  one  of  his  worst  stories, 
Cooper  lashed  the  petty  vices  of  his  countrymen  and  sought 
to  show  them  what  ought  to  be.  As  he  might  have  ex 
pected,  he  only  confirmed  the  public  in  its  hatred  of  him, 
while  he  materially  impaired  his  reputation  as  a  story- 


The  Novelists  129 

teller.  Had  he  been  more  tactful,  philosophical,  and  far- 
seeing,  he  would  have  saved  himself  years  of  stormy  conflict. 
In  Lakewood  Cemetery  at  Cooperstown,  on  the  hill 
overlooking  Otsego  Lake,  is  a  majestic  monument  to 
Fenimore  Cooper,  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  and  sur 
mounted  by  a  statue  of  the  hunter  Leatherstocking  and 
his  dog.  As  enduring  as  bronze  is  this  character  in  our 
American  fiction;  the  hero  that  will  live  longest  of  Cooper's 
creations.  In  him  Lowell  found  "the  protagonist  of  our 
New  World  epic,  a  figure  as  poetic  as  that  of  Achilles,  as 
ideally  representative  as  that  of  Don  Quixote,  as  romantic 
in  his  relation  to  our  homespun  and  plebeian  myths  as 
Arthur  in  his  to  the  mailed  and  plumed  cycle  of  chivalry. " 
The  series  in  which  he  appears,  "The  Deerslayer, "  "The 
Pathfinder, "  "The  Last  of  the  Mohicans, "  "The  Pioneers, " 
and  "The  Prairie,"  the  group  which  Cooper  himself 
preferred  to  his  other  stories,  is  now  (excepting  always 
"The  Spy")  more  read  than  all  Cooper's  other  works  put 
together.  Drawn  at  first  from  life,  Natty  Bumppo  becomes 
an  idealised  character,  the  perfect  type  of  the  bold  fron 
tiersman  and  scout,  who  read  nature  as  an  open  book,  and 
who  was  most  at  home  when  farthest  from  the  haunts  of 
the  civilised  world.  Worthy  to  stand  by  his  side  is  the 
noble  Indian  Chingachgook,  "grave,  silent,  acute,  self- 
contained,"  as  Mr.  James  H.  Morse  says  of  him;  "suffi 
ciently  lofty-minded  to  take  in  the  greatness  of  the  Indian's 
past,  and  sufficiently  farsighted  to  see  the  hopelessness  of 
his  future, — with  nobility  of  soul  enough  to  grasp  the  white 
man's  virtues,  and  with  inherited  wildness  enough  to  keep 
him  true  to  the  instincts  of  his  own  race. "  Famous  among 
Cooper's  sailor  folk  is  Long  Tom  Coffin,  of  "The  Pilot" — 
type  of  the  rough  but  honest  seaman,  superstitious  like  all 
seamen  but  devoutly  religious,  faithful  to  the  last  and  cap 
able  of  the  most  heroic  self-sacrifice.  Other  characters 
scarcely  less  well  drawn,  if  less  famous,  move  through 
Cooper's  pages — rough,  uncouth  waifs  and  strays  of  border 


130  The  Nineteenth  Century 

life,  grizzled  old  sea-dogs,  soldiers'  and  sailors'  wives  and 
sweethearts,  such  as  the  wife  of  Ishmael  Bush,  Hetty  and 
Judith  Hutter,  and  Dew-of-June. 

That  he  exhibited  marked  imperfections  in  style  and 
technique  no  one  will  deny.  He  wrote  too  rapidly  to  attain 
to  anything  like  elegance  of  style,  and  he  is  not  infrequently 
obscure.  He  continually  repeats  words  and  expressions, 
to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  reader.  The  same  careless 
ness  that  characterises  his  style  is  occasionally  seen  in  the 
construction  of  his  stories.  Scenes  are  repeated.  Mis 
takes  due  to  forgetfulness  occur,  as  in  "  Mercedes  of  Castile, " 
where  the  heroine  presents  her  lover,  on  his  outward  voyage, 
with  a  cross  of  sapphire  stones,  emblems,  she  tells  him,  of 
fidelity,  which  later  appear  as  turquoise  stones.  Peculiari 
ties  of  habit  or  manner  are  referred  to  so  continually  that 
the  reader  becomes  weary  and  disgusted.  Numerous  char 
acters  are,  it  must  be  admitted,  conventional  in  the  extreme. 
Cooper  failed  signally  in  his  fine  women.  They  are  not 
creatures  of  flesh  and  blood;  they  are  purely  imaginary 
creatures  in  petticoats,  mere  simulacra,  invariably  para 
gons  of  sweetness,  discretion,  and  artlessness,  ever  saying 
and  doing  the  correct  thing  until  the  reader  longs  for  a  little 
less  of  the  angel  and  a  good  deal  more  of  Mother  Eve. 
Finally,  his  introductions  are  exceedingly  prolix  and  tedious, 
though  in  this  respect  he  sinned  in  company  with  Scott  and 
many  another  of  the  time. 

But  we  must  not  let  this  catalogue  of  Cooper's  defects 
obscure  his  virtues.  In  spite  of  occasional  carelessness  of 
construction,  all  his  best  stories  are  highly  interesting;  he 
spins  a  good  yarn.  Never  straining  after  effects,  never 
loading  his  sentences  with  ornaments,  when  once  started 
he  moves  straight  ahead  to  his  goal;  one  stirring  scene 
follows  another;  there  is  wonderful  fertility  of  resource, 
set  forth  with  the  confidence  that  begets  faith.  His  was 
a  large  genius,  which,  though  unsuccessful  at  miniature 
work,  could  manage  a  large  canvas  marvellously  well.  It 


The  Novelists  131 

must  not  be  forgotten  that  Cooper  was  a  pioneer;  that  he 
was  the  creator  of  our  American  romance  of  forest  and 
prairie  and  sea.  His  descriptions  of  nature  are  done  with 
the  hand  of  a  master.  "If  Cooper,"  remarked  Balzac, 
"had  succeeded  in  the  painting  of  character  to  the  same 
extent  that  he  did  in  the  painting  of  the  phenomena  of 
nature^  he  would  have  uttered  the  last  word  of  our  art." 
Moreover,  Cooper's  stories  are  honest  and  wholesome  like 
himself;  they  breathe  the  same  genuineness,  the  same 
sincerity  and  hatred  of  shams  and  meanness;  they  uni 
formly  hold  ur^jaoble_ and  worthy  ideals;  their  tone  is 
always  as  healthful  and  invigorating^as  a  breath  of  ozone. 
As  Professor  Trent  remarks,  he  "lifted  the  story  of  ad 
venture  into  the  realms  of  poetry";  and  as  the  poet  of  the 
primeval  American  forest  he  has  never  been  superseded. 
Professor  Lounsbury,  whose  Life  of  Cooper,  in  the 
"American  Men  of  Letters"  Series,  remains  the  authori 
tative  biography,  sums  up  the  man  and  his  work  as 
follows : 

America  has  had  among  her  representatives  of  the  irritable  race 
of  writers  many  who  have  shown  far  more  ability  to  get  on  pleas 
antly  with  their  fellows  than  Cooper.  She  has  had  several  gifted 
with  higher  spiritual  insight  than  he,  with  broader  and  juster 
views  of  life,  with  finer  ideals  of  literary  art,  and,  above  all,  with 
far  greater  delicacy  of  taste.  But  she  counts  on  the  scanty  roll  of 
her  men  of  letters  the  name  of  no  one  who  acted  from  purer  pat 
riotism  or  loftier  principle.  She  finds  among  them  all  no  manlier 
nature,  and  no  more  heroic  soul. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Brownell  prepared  for  the  Iroquois  Edition  of 
Cooper's  Works  a  critical  introduction  which  may  safely 
be  accepted  as  the  most  just,  most  delicate,  and  most 
comprehensive  analysis  of  the  man  and  of  his  work.  Mr. 
Brownell  writes: 

There  is  a  quality  in  Cooper's  romance,  however,  that  gives  it 
as  romance  an  almost  unique  distinction.  I  mea.n  its 


132  The  Nineteenth  Century 

substantial  alliance  with  reality.  It  is  thoroughly  romantic 
yet — very  likely  owing  to  his  imaginative  deficiency,  if  any 
can  be  so  owing — it  produces,  for  romance,  an  almost  uneqt 
illusion  of  life  itself .  .  .  .  Cooper's  .  .  .  work  is  in  no  sense  a  j 
des  plantes;  it  is  like  the  woods  and  sea  that  mainly  fon 
subject  and  substance.  Only  critical  myopia  can  be  blind  t< 
magnificent  forest,  with  its  pioneer  clearings,  its  fringe  of  "s 
ments,"  its  wood-embosomed  lakes,  its  neighbouring  prairi 
the  one  side,  and  on  the  other  the  distant  ocean  with  the  cit 
its  farther  shore — the  splendid  panorama  of  man,  of  nature 
of  human  life  unrolled  for  us  by  this  large  intelligence  and 
imagination,  this  manly  and  patriotic  American  represent  at  i 
the  literary  parliament  of  the  world. 

The  Elder  Dana. — Richard  Henry  Dana  (1787-1! 
lawyer,  politician,  poet,  critic,  and  novelist,  was  one  o 
group  of  Boston  writers  that  laid  the  foundations  of 
England  literature.  His  tales,  "Tom  Thornton" 
"Paul  Felton,"  are  romantic  stories  of  villainy  anc 
sanity,  and  give  evidence  of  the  influence  of  Broc 
Brown.  The  narrative  has  at  times  an  impetuous  s- 
that  hurries  the  reader  along  in  spite  of  himself;  anc 
characterisation  is  wrought  with  powerful  strokes.  A 
lective  edition  of  his  "Poems  and  Prose  Writings" 
peared  in  1833. 

Miss  Sedgwick  and  Mrs.  Child. — Catherine  ]V 
Sedgwick  (1789-1867)  was  the  daughter  of  Judge  1 
dore  Sedgwick  and  was  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachus 
where  she  was  principal  of  a  young  ladies'  school  for 
a  century.  Her  duties  as  a  teacher  did  not  prevent 
from  becoming  a  voluminous  novelist.  Her  first  story 
"A  New  England  Tale"  (1822),  which  at  once  f< 
favour.  "Redwood"  (1824)  was  translated  into  thn 
four  Continental  languages ;  on  the  title-page  of  the  Fr 
translation,  the  novel  was  ascribed  to  Fenimore  Coc 
Other  novels  which  achieved  great  popularity  for 
faithful  portraiture  of  early  and  contemporary  New  ! 


The  Novelists  133 

land  life  were  "Hope  Leslie,  or  Early  Times  in  Massachu 
setts"  (1827),  ''Clarence,  a  Tale  of  Our  Own  Times"  (1830), 
"The  Linwoods,  or  Sixty  Years  Since  in  America"  (1835), 
and  "Married  or  Single"  (1857).  While  Miss  Sedgwick 
never  rises  to  the  height  of  absorbing  interest,  she  is  rarely 
dull,  and  some  of  her  women,  if  we  allow  for  the  difference 
in  time,  do  not  suffer  in  comparison  with  those  of  Mrs. 
Stowe  and  Mrs.  Wilkins  Freeman.  Her  descriptions  of 
simple  country  life  were  superior  to  any  that  had  hitherto 
appeared.  Mrs.  Child,  born  Lydia  Maria  Francis  (1802— 
1880),  who  likewise  spent  her  life  in  Massachusetts,  began 
writing  early,  producing  her  first  novel,  "Hobomok,"  in 
1824  and  her  second,  "The  Rebels,"  a  year  later.  The 
former  deals  with  Salem  life  in  colonial  times;  the  latter 
is  a  story  of  the  Revolution,  describing  the  sack  of  Governor 
Hutchinson's  house  and  the  Boston  massacre.  Although 
they  give  true  pictures  of  early  Puritan  customs,  they  are 
not  powerful  as  fiction.  In  1836  she  essayed  a  more 
ambitious  flight  in  "Philothea,"  a  romance  of  the  days  of 
Pericles,  which,  in  spite  of  its  stilted  rhetoric,  reveals  some 
imaginative  power  and  deserves  mention  as  a  pioneer  at 
tempt  to  interpret  Greek  life  to  America. 

Timothy  Flint. — A  voluminous  writer  and  in  his  day 
a  well-known  figure  was  Timothy  Flint  (1780-1840),  a 
native  of  Reading,  Massachusetts,  and  a  graduate  of 
Harvard  in  the  class  of  1800.  Becoming  a  Congregational 
minister,  in  1815,  in  search  for  health,  he  crossed  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  with  his  family,  and  after  travelling 
in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  became  a  missionary,  first 
at  St.  Charles,  Missouri,  and  then  in  Arkansas.  The 
success  of  his  "Recollections  of  the  Last  Ten  Years"  (1826) 
led  him  to  publish  a  novel,  "Francis  Berrian,  or  The 
Mexican  Patriot"  (1826),  dealing  with  adventures  with  the 
Comanche  Indians,  and  with  the  Mexican  struggle  of  1821, 
which  resulted  in  the  fall  of  Iturbide.  The  story  was 


134  The  Nineteenth  Century 

crude  and  improbable,  but  some  of  its  descriptions  found 
favour.  ''Arthur  denning,"  his  second  novel,  published  in 
1828,  includes  a  shipwreck  in  the  Southern  Ocean,  after 
which  the  hero  and  heroine  arrive  in  New  Holland  and 
later  settle  in  Illinois.  He  wrote  some  other  novels,  but 
none  has  survived.  For  a  time  (1833),  Flint  edited  The 
Knickerbocker;  and  in  1835  he  contributed  some  "Sketches 
of  the  Literature  of  the  United  States"  to  the  London 
AihencBum. 

William  Austin  (1788-1841)  a  lawyer  of  Charlestown, 
Massachusetts,  deserves  to  be  noticed  for  the  remarkable 
story  of  "Peter  Rugg,  the  Missing  Man,"  which  he  wrote 
for  The  New  England  Galaxy  (1827-8;  reprinted  in  "The 
Boston  Book,"  1841,  and  in  other  books  and  papers). 
The  theme  is  the  same  as  that  of  "The  Wandering  Jew." 
While  "originating  in  the  inventive  genius  of  its  author," 
as  Joseph  Buckingham  says  of  it,  it  doubtless  owed  some 
thing  also  to  German  romance. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne. — The  greatest  genius  among 
American  writers  of  romance,  by  many  held  to  be  the 
supreme  literary  artist  of  America,  was  Nathaniel  Haw 
thorne.  He  was  peculiarly  a  product  of  New  England  and 
frankly  admitted  that  New  England  was  quite  as  large  a 
lump  of  earth  as  his  heart  could  take  in.  His  ancestor, 
William  Hathorne,  came  to  the  New  World  in  1630,  in  the 
ship  with  John  Winthrop  and  Thomas  Dudley,  and  became 
a  leader  in  the  colony.  Hathorne's  son  John  was  one  of 
the  judges  in  the  witchcraft  trials  at  Salem  in  1691.  The 
grandfather  and  father  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  were  both 
sea-captains.  The  novelist  was  born  at  Salem  on  July  4, 
1804.  Four  years  later,  his  father,  never  apparently  a 
robust  man,  died  at  Surinam,  and  the  widowed  mother 
began  to  live  in  a  deep  seclusion  which  could  not  fail  to  have 
its  effect  upon  the  quick  sensibilities  of  her  son.  In  1818, 


The  Novelists  135 

the  family  removed  to  Raymond,  on  the  shore  of  Sebago 
Lake,  in  Maine,  where  his  grandfather  Manning  owned  large 
tracts  of  land.  Hawthorne's  boyhood  environment,  there 
fore,  was  not  widely  different  from  that  of  Fenimore  Cooper. 
But  he  was  more  of  a  reader  than  Cooper.  As  a  boy, 
he  became  familiar  with  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Bunyan, 
Clarendon,  Froissart,  Rousseau,  and  Godwin.  Entering 
Bowdoin  College,  he  was  graduated  in  1825  in  the  class 
with  Longfellow.  While  he  did  not  distinguish  himself  in 
his  studies,  he  became  a  respectable  Latin  and  English 
scholar;  and  he  devoted  much  time  to  reading  in  the  little 
library  of  the  Athenaean  Society.  At  graduation,  he  ranked 
eighteenth  in  a  class  of  thirty-eight.  Meanwhile  his  family 
had  returned  to  Salem,  and  thither  Hawthorne  now  went, 
to  begin  a  period  of  literary  apprenticeship.  It  was  seem 
ingly  a  bold  undertaking  to  attempt  to  live  by  his  pen; 
however,  he  seems  to  have  drifted  into  the  attempt  through 
aversion  to  a  more  active  life.  In  1828,  he  published  anony 
mously  a  novel  called  "Fanshawe,"  dealing  with  some  of 
his  college  experiences  and  recalling  vaguely  the  methods  of 
Scott.  Some  characters,  it  must  be  said,  are  vigorously 
conceived,  and  here  and  there  the  volume  gave  promise 
of  the  author's  future  skill;  but  there  is  about  the  whole 
a  suggestion  of  unreality,  not  to  say  crudeness.  The 
book  found,  as  it  deserved,  an  indifferent  public,  and 
Hawthorne  subsequently  recalled  as  many  copies  as  he 
could  procure  and  burned  them.  For  several  years,  he 
continued  to  live  in  seclusion,  contributing  stories  and 
sketches  to  various  annuals  and  periodicals.  For  the  stories 
he  got  $35  each.  In  March,  1837,  having  been  encouraged 
by  his  friend  Horatio  Bridge,  he  published  the  first  volume 
to  appear  with  his  name,  "Twice-Told  Tales."  They 
were  eighteen  in  number,  being  only  half  of  the  stories  he 
is  known  to  have  printed  up  to  this  time.  The  "Tales" 
gave  Hawthorne  a  considerable  reputation;  Longfellow 
praised  it  in  The  North  American  Review,  then  influential 


136  The  Nineteenth  Century 

in  literary  affairs.  Again  helped  by  his  friends,  in  January, 
1839,  Hawthorne  assumed  the  position  of  weigher  and 
gauger  in  the  Boston  Custom-House.  At  first,  the  novelty 
of  contact  with  the  practical  world  interested  him;. but  he 
soon  found  that  his  work,  always  monotonous,  left  him  no 
time  or  strength  for  writing,  and  he  was  not  sorry  to  lose 
his  post  when  the  Whigs  came  into  power  in  1841.  For  a 
few  months,  he  tried  life  at  Brook  Farm,  thinking  that  in 
this  new  community  he  should  find  a  suitable  way  of  com 
bining  manual  and  intellectual  labour;  but  the  work  was 
too  hard,  and  he  had  too  little  opportunity  for  writing. 
Accordingly  in  1842  he  left  the  Farm,  married  Miss  Sophia 
A.  Peabody,  to  whom  he  had  been  engaged  for  four  years, 
and  settled  at  the  Old  Manse,  an  idyllic  retreat  at  Concord, 
Massachusetts.  Meanwhile,  he  had  published  (1841)  two 
volumes  of  historical  tales  for  young  people,  "Grandfather's 
Chair"  and  "Famous  Old  People";  and  to  these  he  now 
added  a  third  series,  "The  Liberty  Tree,"  as  well  as  a  second 
series  of  "Twice-Told  Tales "  and  a  volume  of  "Biographical 
Stories  for  Children"  (1842).  Of  these,  none  except  the 
"Tales"  rises  much  above  the  level  of  respectable  writing 
to  sell.  In  the  next  four  years,  Hawthorne  wrote  for 
periodicals  some  eighteen  more  tales,  which,  together  with 
a  number  of  earlier  uncollected  stories,  he  republished  in 
1846  as  "Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse."  Hawthorne  now 
returned  to  his  native  Salem  as  surveyor  of  customs 
(1846—9),  and  proved  an  able  administrator  of  the  office. 
Another  period  of  literary  barrenness  ensued,  but  in  1847 
he  resumed  his  writing  and  produced  a  few  tales.  The 
idea  of  a  longer  romance  had  come  to  him,  and  after  his 
dismissal  from  office  in  1849  ne  found  the  leisure  neces 
sary  for  writing  "The  Scarlet  Letter."  Once  more,  then, 
he  exchanged  the  world  of  affairs  for  that  realm  of  the 
imagination  where  he  was  so  much  more  at  home.  Work 
ing  resolutely  amid  sickness  and  poverty,  he  at  length 
completed  the  splendid  romance,  the  publication  of  which 


The  Novelists  137 

distinguishes  the  year  1850  in  American  letters  as  Tenny 
son's  "In  Memoriam"  and  Wordsworth's  "Prelude"  do  in 
English  poetry.  Hawthorne  had  now  entered  upon  a 
period  of  great  productivity.  In  the  next  two  years  he 
published  "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables"  (1851),  "A 
Wonder-Book  for  Girls  and  Boys"  (1851),  "The  Snow 
Image  and  Other  Tales"  (1851),  "Tanglewood  Tales," 
(1852),  "The  Blithedale  Romance"  (1852),  a  tale  based  on 
his  Brook  Farm  life,  and  a  campaign  "Life  of  Franklin 
Pierce,"  his  college  friend,  now  a  candidate  for  the  Presi 
dency.  Promptly  after  his  election,  President  Pierce 
made  Hawthorne  consul  at  Liverpool,  an  office  which  he 
held  from  July,  1853,  "until  September,  1857.  Though  rich 
in  experience  and  in  fruitful  observation,  his  life  in  England 
was  outwardly  quiet  and  uneventful.  The  years  1857-9 
the  Hawthornes  spent  in  Italy,  where  they  mingled  some 
what  more  with  the  world  than  had  been  their  wont.  The 
fruit  of  the  Italian  life  was  "The  Marble  Faun"  (1860), 
written  in  Italy  and  at  Redcar,  on  the  shore  of  the  North 
Sea,  and  published  in  England  as  "Transformation." 
Returning  to  America  in  1860,  Hawthorne  passed  the  next 
four  years  at  the  Wayside,  Concord.  In  1 863  he  contributed 
"Our  Old  Home"  to  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  began  "The 
Dolliver  Romance,"  which  he  was  destined  not  to  finish. 
He  died  suddenly  on  May  18,  1864,  at  Plymouth,  N.  H., 
while  on  a  journey  to  the  New  Hampshire  lakes  in  search 
of  health. 

His  literary  remains  must  be  at  least  mentioned.  In 
1868  appeared  "Passages  from  American  Note-Books"; 
in  1870,  "Passages  from  English  Note-Books";  and  in 
1871,  "Passages  from  French  and  Italian  Note-Books." 
These  volumes  throw  much  light  on  Hawthorne's  favourite 
haunts  and  wandering  propensities,  as  well  as  his  eager 
ness  for  minute  observation.  "Septimius  Felton,  or,  The 
Elixir  of  Life"  (1871)  was  to  be  a  story,  placed  in  Revo 
lutionary  times,  of  a  man  who  sought  earthly  immortality. 


138  The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  theme  was  a  powerful  one;  but  Hawthorne's  strength 
was  evidently  exhausted,  and  the  story  must  be  pro 
nounced  a  failure.  The  last  works  to  appear  were  "The 
Dolliver  Romance"  (1876)  and  "Doctor  Grimshaw's 
Secret,"  which  are  fragmentary  and  ineffective  studies  of 
the  same  theme  as  "Septimius  Felton."  Their  failure,  in 
all  probability,  was  due  not  only  to  the  waning  of  Haw 
thorne's  powers  but  also  to  the  difficulties  attending  the 
theme  itself. 

Hawthorne  was  one  of  the  shyest  of  men.  Kenyon,  in 
"The  Marble  Faun,"  says:  "Between  man  and  man  there 
is  always  an  insuperable  gulf";  such  a  gulf  at  any  rate 
separated  Kenyon's  creator  from  the  rest  of  mankind. 
Always  fond  of  solitude,  he  lived  in  a  world  of  his  own, 
apart  from  humankind ;  longing  at  times  for  more  familiar 
converse  with  men,  but  never  quite  successful  in  establish 
ing  cordial  relations  (outside  of  his  own  family)  with  any 
but  a  few  friends.  Possessed  of  an  exquisitely  sensitive 
nature,  he  made  no  effort  to  conceal  the  pleasure  which 
honest  praise  afforded  him;  and  he  was  easily  rebuffed 
by  the  coolness  of  his  public.  Perhaps  the  bane  of  his  life 
was  self-distrust.  Each  of  his  books  when  first  written 
seemed  to  him  well-nigh  worthless.  James  T.  Fields  has 
told  of  the  difficulty  with  which  he  extracted  from  Haw 
thorne  the  first  manuscript  of  ' '  The  Scarlet  Letter. "  "  Thus 
it  is  with  winged  horses,"  says  Hawthorne  in  "The  Chi- 
maera,"  "and  with  such  wild  and  solitary  creatures.  If  you 
can  catch  and  overcome  them,  it  is  the  surest  way  to  win 
their  love."  Such  was  the  devotion  with  which  Haw 
thorne  repaid  those  who  had  "captured"  him  that  their 
confident  encouragement  greatly  strengthened  and  inspired 
him.  As  might  be  supposed,  however,  with  the  world  at 
large  he  was  lacking  in  sympathy.  His  point  of  view 
was  fixed;  he  could  not  see  the  world  with  the  eyes  of 
another.  This  helps  to  account  for  the  effect  of  harshness 
and  asperity  which  his  chapter  on  "The  Custom  House" 


The  Novelists  139 

in  "  The  Scarlet  Letter"  had  upon  the  people  of  Salem  whom 
he  there  described ;  and  for  the  similar  effect  of  the  descrip 
tions  of  English  life  in  "Our  Old  Home"  upon  the  English 
people  in  general.  As  Professor  Woodberry  remarks,  too, 
he  had  "the  critical  spirit  which  is  a  New  England  trait, 
and  with  this  went  its  natural  attendant,  the  habit  of 
speaking  his  mind."  He  had,  moreover,  deeply  rooted 
prejudices  and  a  natural  hatred  of  shams.  He  disliked  lit 
erary  friendships.  While  in  England,  for  example,  he 
remained  a  stranger  to  the  brilliant  literary  set  in  London 
where  he  might  have  been  warmly  welcomed.  He  saw 
Tennyson  once  in  Manchester,  but  made  no  effort  to  meet 
the  poet.  Another  of  his  aversions  concerned  the  mani 
festations  of  spiritualism — rappings,  tipping  of  tables, 
spirit  writing,  and  the  like;  he_was  a  good  hater  of  shams 
in  general. 

To  his  family,  Hawthorne  was  always  deeply  devoted. 
When  his  mother  died,  although  there  had  always  been 
"a  sort  of  coldness  of  intercourse"  between  them,  he 
spoke  of  the  time  as  the  darkest  hour  he  had  ever  lived 
through.  His  wife  worshipped  him,  and  the  attitude  of 
his  children  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  words  of  his 
son  Julian:  "In  my  thought  of  him  he  has  a  quality  not 
to  be  described;  that  is  associated  with  the  early  impres 
sions  which  make  the  name  of  home  beautiful;  with  a 
child's  delight  in  the  glory  of  nature;  with  a  boy's  aspira 
tions  towards  a  pure  and  generous  career;  with  intimate 
conceptions  of  truth,  bravery,  and  simplicity." 

So  much  for  the  man;  what  now,  shall  be  said  of  the 
artist?  In  the  first  place,  as  he  was  the  peculiar  product 
of  New  England  Puritanism,  so  his  genius  was  in  a  sense 
confined  to  setting  forth  New  England  and  the  problems 
of  New  England  Calvinism.  Even  when  he  lays  the  scene 
of  his  tale  in  Rome,  there  is  the  same  interest  in  the 
working  out  of  the  consequences  of  sin,  and  part  of  the 
characters  are  Americans  living  in  the  Eternal  City. 


140  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Hawthorne  still  stands  alone  in  having  given  supreme  lit 
erary  expression  to  that  earnest  and  virile  if  narrow  and  at 
times  misguided  life  of  early  New  England;  its  pathos,  its 
tragedy,  its  legacy  to  modern  times.  Then  it  must  be 
observed  that  in  doing  this  he  places  himself  in  the  ranks 
of  the  great  masters  in  deducing  from  the  individual  the 
general  experience;  from  the  particular  the  universal 
moral  life.  In  his  earlier  years  he  delighted  in  allegory, 
of  which  the  "Tales"  and  the  "Mosses"  are  full;  and  he 
was  always  fojid^f_sj/][ribolism.  Lady  Eleanore's  mantle, 
for  example,  is  a  symbol  of  pride;  the  scarlet  letter  is  a 
symbol  of  sin;  no  less  is  Donatello  a  symbol,  a  type  of 
universal  innocence  tasting  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil — the  missing  link,  as  it  were,  in  the  evolution  of  moral 
instincts.  Hawthorne  constantly  describes  the  unseen  in 
terms  of  the  seen,  the  spiritual  world  by  means  of  the 
every  day,  material  world. 

The  "Tales"  have  been  most  elaborately  characterised 
by  Professor  Woodberry  in  his  admirable  biography.1 
Many  of  them  are  intrinsically  slight — descriptions  of  the 
common  events  of  daily  life,  always  somewhat  moralised, 
and  to  an  increasing  extent  as  the  author  grew  older.  In 
some  the  fancy  has  free  rein,  as  in  "The  Seven  Vaga 
bonds"  and  "The  Great  Stone  Face."  In  "Tales  of  the 
Province  House"  and  many  others  Hawthorne  skilfully 
wove  threads  of  colonial  history  with  the  rich  woof  of  his 
imagination  to  produce  a  splendid  romantic  pageant. 
Sometimes  he  treats  of  individuals,  as  in  "David  Swan" 
and  "Rappaccini's  Daughter";  often  he  studies  the  group, 
or  the  crowd,  as  in  the  "The  Celestial  Railroad,"  "The 
Christmas  Banquet,"  "The  Procession  of  Life."  In  all, 
he  stydieq  tfrft  moral  life  and  tries  to  understand  the  sig 
nificance  of  some  phase  of  universal  human  experience. 

"The   Scarlet   Letter"   has  been  called  by   Mr.   James 

1  "  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,"  Boston,  1902  ("  American  Men  of 
Letters"),  pp.  124-58. 


The  Novelists  141 

"the  most  distinctive  piece  of  prose  fiction  that  was  to 
spring  from  American  soil."  It  is  a  grim  tragedy,  in  which 
the  consequences  of  sin  are  depicted  with  ajamplicity,  a 
steady  movement,  and  a  relentlessness  characteristic  of  the 
tragedies  of  Euripides.  Hester  Prynne  and  Arthur  Dimmes- 
dale  living  agonised  lives  which  moved  steadily  towards 
the  day  of  expiatory  shame;  Roger  Chilingworth,  out 
wardly  the  wise,  benevolent  physician,  inwardly  the  ghastly 
demon  gloating  over  his  victim — these  figures  indeed  move 
us  to  pity  and  fear,  and  give  us  a  new  sense  of  the  depth 
and  mystery  of  our  human  life,  which  no  man  liveth  to 
himself  alone,  but  which  must  be  interpreted  as  the  ex 
pression  and  result  of  racial  upstriving  through  myriads  of 
years.  "The  Scarlet  Letter"  is  indeed,  as  Mr.  W.  C.  Brow- 
nell  says,1  the  Puritan  "Faust";  and  many  will  doubtless 
agree  with  him  in  calling  it  "  our  one  p™^  TTiaifitP'T*z*~>"'u 
In  "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,"  Hawthorne  re 
turns  to  the  present  and  studies  the  workings  of  heredity. 
Less  gloomy  than  the  earlier  story,  this  one  is  still  sombre 
and  in  part  removed  from  the  world  of  objective  reality. 
Real  enough,  to  be  sure,  are  the  commonplace  features 
of  daily  life  at  the  Seven  Gables,  the  pinched  features  and 
heroic  heart  of  Hepzibah,  and  the  homely  philosophising 
of  Uncle  Venner;  but  Jaffrey  and  Clifford  Pyncheon  are 
at  best  shadowy  and  unreal.  Holgrave,  too,  belongs  to  a 
type  which,  common  enough  in  the  days  of  Brook  Farm 
Fourierism,  has  now  well-nigh  passed  away.  Phoebe 
Pyncheon  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  exquisite  of  all 
Hawthorne's  portraits;  as  Dr.  Holmes  wrote  to  the  author, 
' '  the  flavour  of  the  sweet-fern  and  the  bay  berry  are  not 
truer  to  the  soil  than  the  native  sweetness  of  our  little 
Phoebe."  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  when  the  book  ap 
peared  Hawthorne  wrote  to  his  friend  Horatio  Bridge: 

"The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables, "  in  my  opinion,  is  better  than 
1  Scribner's  Magazine,  January,  1908,  xliii.  84. 


142  The  Nineteenth  Century 

"The  Scarlet  Letter";  but  I  should  not  wonder  if  I  had  refined 
upon  the  principal  character  a  little  too  much  for  popular  appre 
ciation,  nor  if  the  romance  of  the  book  should  be  somewhat  at  odds 
with  the  humble  and  familiar  scenery  in  which  I  invest  it.  But 
I  feel  that  portions  of  it  are  as  good  as  anything  I  can  hope  to 
write. 

More  able  critics  than  one  have  pronounced  "The 
Blithedale  Romance"  the  most  perfect  of  Hawthorne's 
stories.  Although  he  wrote  to  George  William  Curtis  that 
the  story  had  essentially  nothing  to  do  with  Brook  Farm, 
it  is  certain  that  the  community  formed  more  than  a  back 
ground  for  the  story,  and  furnished  some  of  its  incidents 
and  the  traits  of  some  of  the  characters.  Thus  the  romance 
may  be  said  to  approach  more  closely  to  real  life  than 
any  other  of  the  greater  works.  The  characters  are  drawn 
with  great  distinctness  of  outline:  Hollingsworth  the  re 
former,  earnest,  stern,  engrossed  in  his  reform  undertaking 
to  the  point  of  selfishness;  Miles  Coverdale,  the  dreamer, 
who  bears  the  ear-marks  of  his  artist  creator,  always  a 
spectator  of,  rather  than  a  participant  in,  the  life  at 
Blithedale;  Priscilla,  the  timid  maid  who  seemed  to  have 
dropped  down  from  the  clouds  and  sought  protection  in 
this  retreat;  Zenobia  with  her  splendid  beauty,  her  refine 
ment,  her  ardour,  her  despair  when  disillusionment  comes — 
all  these  are  highly  individualised.  It  has  been  complained, 
and  with  justice,  that  neither  Zenobia  nor  Priscilla  is  a 
typical  New  England  girl ;  but  something  may  perhaps  be 
conceded  to  the  romantic  atmosphere  of  the  tale;  the 
author  did  not  promise  a  transcript  from  prosaic  real  life. 
The  plot  halts  now  and  then,  and  does  not  move  steadily 
and  convincingly  to  its  climax.  The  inserted  story  of  "The 
Veiled  Lady"  does  not  materially  further  the  plot.  Yet  as 
a  whole  the  romance  is  a  searching  and  remarkable  pre 
sentment  of  Hawthorne's  views  of  reform.  He  was  never 
a  reformer;  he  distrusted  the  excess  of  zeal,  the  narrow 
ness  of  vision  too  often  characteristic  of  the  more  ardent 


The  Novelists  143 

reformers  of  his  day ;  and  with  great  skill  he  has  here  set 
forth  the  illusory  hopes,  the  discouragement,  the  sense  of 
impotence  and  defeat  that  must  attend  the  outcome  of 
radical  schemes  for  human  improvement  which  are  not 
grounded  on  sound  and  wide  knowledge  of  man's  nature. 

Probably  the  most  popular,  as  it  was  the  most  ambi 
tious,  of  all  the  romances,  has  been  "The  Marble  Faun." 
With  consummate  skill  the  author  maintains  the  mystery 
necessary  for  the  romantic  atmosphere  and  at  the  same 
time  draws  in  clear  outlines  the  four  characters  in  the 
little  drama — this  miniature  world- tragedy,  this  "story  of 
the  fall  of  man  repeated,"  as  Miriam  says.  As  Mr.  Lathrop 
has  pointed  out,  moreover,  with  the  main  theme,  itself  of 
abiding  interest,  is  joined  a  study  of  the  psychology  of 
Beatrice  Cenci's  story;  but,  without  stopping  where  Shelley 
stopped,  Hawthorne  went  on  to  show  how  Miriam  and 
Donatello  might  "work  out  their  purification."  Thus  while 
the  romance  may,  as  one  critic  avers,  "begin  in  mystery 
and  end  in  mist,"  the  end  is  nevertheless  full  of  hope. 

Hawthorne  has  never  been,  and  doubtless  never  will 
be,  a  popular  novelist.  His  stories  are  for  the  few,  the 
thoughtful  readers  who  are  willing  to  read  old  favourites 
over  and  over  again.  But  there  will  always  be  such  persons, 
haply  in  increasing  numbers ;  and  for  them  Hawthorne  will 
continue  to  be  a  unique  personality,  the  "high  untram 
melled  thinker,"  the  interpreter  of  spiritual  mysteries. 

Charles  Seals-field. — Although  not  mentioned  by  most 
historians  of  American  literature,  the  Austrian  novelist 
Carl  Postl  ("Charles  Sealsfield,"  1793-1864)  deserves  to 
be  recalled  here  from  the  fact  that  his  works  deal  chiefly 
with  American  life  and  in  their  English  form  enjoyed  con 
siderable  popularity  in  America.  Born  in  Poppitz,  Moravia, 
he  became  at  first  a  priest  of  the  order  of  the  Kreuzherren 
von  Poltenberg ;  but,  having  broken  with  Catholic  dogma, 
he  fled  from  the  cloister  and  arrived  in  New  York  in  1823  as 


144  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Charles  Sealsfield.  He  remained  in  America  until  1832, 
travelling  extensively  and  making  close  studies  of  life  and 
character.  His  first  novel,  "Tokeah,  or  The  White  Rose; 
an  Indian  Tale"  (Philadelphia,  1828),  was  republished  at 
Zurich  in  1833  as  "Der  Legitime  und  die  Republikaner " ; 
while  never  a  popular  story  in  America,  it  seems,  as  Pro 
fessor  Faust  has  discovered, J  to  have  furnished  Mrs.  Jack 
son  with  some  hints  for  her  "  Ramona  "  and  Charles  F.  Hoff 
man  with  a  motif  for  his  "Vigil  of  Faith."  After  his  return 
to  Europe  Sealsfield  published,  among  other  things,  "Trans- 
atlantische  Reiseskizzen  "  (1833),  translated  as  "Life  in  the 
New  World,  or  Sketches  of  American  Society"  (1844), 
which  originally  appeared  in  The  New  York  Mirror  in 
1827-8  and  which  furnished  Simms  with  some  scenes  for 
"Guy  Rivers";  "Nathan  der  Squatter  Regulator"  (1837), 
translated  as  "Life  in  Texas"  (1845);  "Der  Virey  und  die 
Aristokraten,  oder  Mexiko  im  Jahre  1812"  (1834);  "Mor 
ton,  oder  Die  grosse  Tour"  (1835) ;  "Das  Cajiitenbuch,  oder 
Nationale  Charakteristiken "  (1841),  translated  as  "The 
Cabin  Book"  (1844),  which  furnished  Mayne  Reid  with 
the  last  ten  chapters  of  his  "Wild  Life"  without  change; 
and  "Siiden  und  Norden"  (1842-3),  translated  as  "North 
and  South,  or  Scenes  and  Adventures  in  Mexico"  (1844). 
In  his  vigorous  delineations  of  the  crude  American  life  of 
the  twenties  and  thirties,  Sealsfield  exhibited  great  enthusi 
asm,  a  wide  range  of  observation  which  overlooked  nothing 
and  which  measured  impartially,  and  a  comprehension  of 
the  true  inwardness  of  our  young  institutions  such  as  no 
native  American  of  his  day  possessed.  If  his  exaggerating 
brush  failed  of  the  touch  of  an  artist,  he  created  some  char 
acters,  such  as  Morton  and  Nathan  Strong,  who  deserve 
immortality  as  typical  Americans,  and  described  with 
inimitable  fidelity  "the  dauntless  squatter  and  sturdy 

*  "Charles  Sealsfield  (Carl  Postl),  Materials  for  a  Biography;  a 
Study  of  his  Style;  his  Influence  upon  American  Literature," 
Baltimore,  1892. 


The  Novelists  145 

pioneer,  the  Southern  planter  and  patriarchal  slave 
holder,  the  grasping  millionaire  and  his  emissaries,  the 
New  York  dandy  and  the  society  belle,  the  taciturn 
Yankee  sea-captain  and  the  hot-blooded  Kentuckian,  the 
utilitarian  alcalde  and  the  reformed  desperado." 

William  Leggett  (1802-39),  after  spending  some  time 
at  Georgetown  College,  accompanied  his  family  in  1819 
to  make  a  settlement  on  the  prairies  of  Illinois.  He  spent 
the  years  1822-26  as  a  midshipman  in  the  navy.  His 
experiences  of  pioneer  and  sea  life  were  graphically  por 
trayed  in  "The  Rifle,"  published  in  1828  in  The  Atlantic 
Souvenir,  and  in  "Tales  by  a  Country  Schoolmaster"  (1835). 
For  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  in  journalism, 
from  1829  till  1836  as  one  of  the  editors  of  The  Evening  Post. 

Southern  Novelists. — Thus  far  we  have  considered  no 
native  Southern  writer  of  fiction.  The  novel  ripened  late 
in  the  South ;  indeed,  only  one  writer  of  fiction  of  the  first 
rank  was  produced  by  the  South  before  the  Civil  War. 
Yet  in  the  varied  and  picturesque  life  of  the  aristocratic 
planters,  the  frontiersmen,  the  "poor  whites,"  and  the 
negroes  there  were  rich  materials  for  the  artist  and  the 
story-teller,  who  in  due  time  began  to  avail  themselves  of 
their  opportunity.  ' '  The  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah  "  (1824) 
by  George  Tucker  (1775-1861),  though  reprinted  in  Eng 
land  and  translated  into  German,  possesses  slight  worth, 
and  little  more  can  be  said  of  his  "Voyage  to  the  Moon" 
(1827),  a  satirical  romance;  yet  these  works  gave  promise 
of  better  things  from  the  South.  William  A.  Carruthers 
(1806-72),  a  voluminous  contributor  to  magazines,  wrote 
two  novels,  "The  Cavaliers  of  Virginia"  (1832)  and  "The 
Knights  of  the  Horseshoe"  (1845),  which,  in  spite  of  serious 
defects,  deal  with  colonial  days  in  Virginia  in  a  genial, 
vigorous,  and  unhackneyed  manner. 

"Davy"  Crockett  (1786-1836),  crude,  unlettered  hun- 


146  The  Nineteenth  Century 

ter,  backwoodsman,  and  Congressman,  published,  in  his 
"Autobiography"  (1834),  a  collection  of  thrilling  narra 
tives  of  adventure  remarkable  for  directness,  vividness, 
and  virility.  The  "  Georgia  Scenes,  Characters,  and  Inci 
dents"  (1835)  of  Augustus  B.  Longstreet  (1790-1870),  who 
was  for  many  years  a  college  president,  revealed  the  curi 
ous  traits  of  the  poor  whites  or  "Crackers"  of  Georgia. 
"The  Partisan  Leader"  (1836)  by  Nathaniel  Beverley  Tucker 
(1784-1851)  dealt  with  the  encroachments  of  the  Federal 
Government  upon  the  rights  of  the  States,  and  prophesied 
with  startling  and  accurate  logic  the  terrible  disruption 
which  occurred  a  quarter  of  a  century  later.  If  artistically 
imperfect,  it  is  a  stirring  tale,  intense  in  its  action,  and  of 
heroic  strain.  But  it  can  scarcely  be  said  that  any  of 
these  works  now  survive.  They  are  mainly  important  as 
illustrating  the  evolution  of  Southern  fiction.  With  Ken 
nedy  and  Simms,  however,  the  South  takes  a  high  place 
in  the  fiction  of  America. 

John  Pendleton  Kennedy. — For  John  Pendleton  Kennedy 
(1795-1870),  literature  was  never  more  than  a  pastime,  a 
fact  much  to  be  regretted.  Kennedy  belonged  to  a  prom 
inent  and  wealthy  family.  He  was  born  in  Baltimore, 
was  graduated  from  Baltimore  College  in  1812,  and  studied 
law.  Entering  political  life,  he  employed  his  pen  effectively 
in  the  defence  of  his  political  principles,  but  occasionally 
amused  himself  with  ventures  in  lighter  forms  of  literature. 
His  first  work  of  importance,  "Swallow  Barn"  (1832),  was 
distinctly  declared  not  to  be  a  novel;  and  indeed  the 
action  is  of  slight  importance.  His  main  purpose  in  writ 
ing  it  was  to  give,  in  connection  with  a  slender  plot,  a 
picture  of  manners  and  customs  in  Virginia  toward  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Here  is  no  subtle  char 
acterisation  ;  the  persons  of  the  narrative  are  drawn  broadly 
and  naturally  and  the  story  moves  easily,  if  a  little  slowly, 
to  its  end.  The  local  scenery  and  institutions  are  delineated 


The  Novelists  147 

with  the  utmost  fidelity.  Frank  Meriwether,  the  prosperous 
country  gentleman  and  magistrate,  has  been  called  a 
Virginia  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley;  and  there  is  throughout 
observed  the  same  quiet  good  humour,  the  same  cheerful 
atmosphere,  the  same  genial  optimism  that  one  finds  in 
the  pages  of  Addison.  "Horse-Shoe  Robinson,  a  Tale  of 
the  Tory  Ascendency"  (1835),  was  a  story  of  early  Tory 
days  in  South  Carolina,  and  is  now  generally  considered 
the  best  novel  written  in  the  South  before  the  Civil  War. 
The  action  centres  about  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain 
(1780),  which  is  vividly  and  accurately  described.  The 
intrepid  valour  of  the  backwoods  patriot,  the  bitterness  and 
horror  of  civil  war,  the  relieving  and  characteristic  humour 
of  primitive  frontier  life,  are  well  portrayed.  The  black 
smith  Galbraith  Robinson  is  a  typical  American,  worthy 
to  rank  with  Cooper's  Leatherstocking,  and  possibly  truer 
to  nature  than  Cooper's  more  famous  creation.  In  1838 
appeared  Kennedy's  third  novel,  "Rob  of  the  Bowl:  a 
Legend  of  St.  Inigoes,"  a  story  of  Colonial  Maryland 
and  the  struggles  of  the  Catholic  settlers,  with  which  are 
interwoven  traditions  of  the  piratical  "Brethren  of  the 
Coast."  Nor  must  we  fail  to  mention  the  humorous 
chronicle  entitled  "Quodlibet:  Containing  some  Annals 
thereof,  by  Solomon  Second  thought,  Schoolmaster"  (1840), 
in  which  are  described  the  vagaries  and  absurdities  of  an 
early  Presidential  election.  Had  Kennedy  made  literature 
the  serious  business  of  life  he  would  have  won  more  last 
ing  fame.  As  it  is,  he  deserves  to  be  more  widely  read 
than  he  is. * 

William  Gilmore  Simms. — One  of  the  most  prolific  of 
American  novelists  was  William  Gilmore  Simms.  Born 

1  It  has  been  alleged  that  by  invitation  Kennedy  wrote  the 
fourth  chapter  of  the  second  volume  of  Thackeray's  "Virginians" 
(1857-9;  Tauchnitz  Edition,  vols.  425,  441).  Mrs.  Ritchie,  Thack 
eray's  daughter,  however,  believes  that  Kennedy  only  gave  her 
father  many  hints  and  facts. 


148  The  Nineteenth  Century 

in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  April  17,  1806,  he  was 
early  left,  by  the  death  of  his  mother  and  the  removal  of 
his  father  to  Tennessee,  to  the  care  of  his  grandmother, 
from  whom  he  learned  many  a  weird  tale  of  peril  and 
adventure.  From  the  poor  schools  of  his  time  he  gained 
little,  though  he  became  an  omnivorous  reader.  Ap 
prenticed  to  a  druggist,  at  eighteen  he  turned  to  the  study 
of  law.  A  long  visit  to  his  father  in  the  South-west  gave 
him  a  good  opportunity  to  study  the  primitive  life  of  the 
backwoodsmen,  a  life  which  he  afterward  described  in 
imitably.  At  twenty  he  married  and  in  another  year  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Successful  from  the  first,  he 
resolutely  turned,  however,  from  the  practice  of  law  to  a 
literary  life.  He  had  become  well  known  as  a  poet  when 
his  first  prose  tale,  "Martin  Faber,  the  Story  of  a  Criminal," 
appeared  in  1833,  revealing  the  influence  of  William  God 
win  and  Brockden  Brown,  but  also  independent  skill  in 
the  construction  of  an  interesting  narrative.  In  "Guy 
Rivers"  (1834),  a  description  of  Georgia  in  the  turbulent 
days  of  the  gold  fever,  Simms  began  a  series  of  border  ro 
mances  which,  though  marred  by  a  slipshod  style  and  by 
roughness  of  construction,  are  nevertheless  in  the  main 
readable  on  account  of  the  rapidity  and  energy  of  the 
narrative.  In  "The  Yemassee"  (1835),  a  story  of  the 
strife  between  South  Carolina  and  the  Indians  in  1715, 
Simms  is  perhaps  at  his  best,  and  his  stirring  narrative 
strongly  reminds  one  of,  though  it  does  not  rival,  the  work 
of  Cooper.  Then  came  a  trilogy,  "The  Partisan"  (1835), 
"  Mellichampe :  a  Legend  of  the  Santee"  (1836),  and 
"Katharine  Walton,  or  The  Rebel  of  Dorchester"  (1851), 
in  which  he  portrays  every  phase  of  social  life  in  Charleston 
during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  delineates  the  military 
careers  of  Marion,  Pickens,  Moultrie,  Sumter,  and  Hayne. 
Between  1836  and  1859  he  published  some  twenty-five 
other  novels  and  stories,  generally  in  two  volumes  each, 
the  best  of  which  are  "The  Kinsmen"  (1841),  afterwards 


The  Novelists  149 

known  as  "The  Scout,"  (1854),  "The  Sword  and  the  Dis 
taff,"  now  known  as  "Woodcraft"  (1852),  "The  Foray- 
ers,  or  The  Raid  of  the  Dog-Days"  (1855),  its  sequel, 
"Eutaw"  (1856),  and  "The  Cassique  of  Kiawah"  (1859). 
He  also  wrote  numerous  short  stories  for  various  periodicals ; 
one  of  these,  "Grayling,  or  Murder  Will  Out,"  published 
in  The  Gift  for  1842,  was  pronounced  by  Poe  the  best 
ghost  story  he  had  ever  read.  A  collection  of  thirteen  of 
Simms'  best  stories  was  published  in  1845-46  under  the 
title  of  "The  Wigwam  and  the  Cabin."  Notwithstanding 
his  immense  popularity  before  the  Civil  War,  Simms  is  now 
well-nigh  forgotten.  Although  a  conscientious  workman, 
he  wrote  much  too  rapidly  to  produce  permanent  literature, 
and  his  faulty  style  and  his  excessive  fondness  for  por 
traying  in  detail  scenes  of  carnage  and  crime  strongly 
repel  the  reader  of  to-day.  After  the  Civil  War,  which 
Simms  did  much  to  bring  on  and  from  which  he  suffered 
severe  losses,  his  popularity  rapidly  waned,  and  he  tried 
in  vain  to  make  good  his  losses.  He  died  in  his  native  city 
on  June  n,  1870,  having  composed  this  epitaph  for  him 
self:  "Here  lies  one  who,  after  a  reasonably  long  life, 
distinguished  chiefly  by  unceasing  labours,  has  left  all  his 
better  works  undone. " 

His  remarkable  achievement  in  the  pioneer  days  of 
American  letters,  on  the  whole,  entitles  him  to  be  remem 
bered  with  gratitude;  and  the  verdict  of  Poe,  who  ranked 
Simms,  as  a  novelist,  just  below  Cooper  and  Brockden 
Brown,  has  not  been  impugned.1 

Edgar  Allan  Poe. — No  American  writer  is  more  difficult 
to  judge  than  Edgar  Allan  Poe  (1809-49),  whether  as  a 
man  or  as  a  writer;  and  perhaps  no  other  writer  has  re 
ceived  more  attention  from  critics,  not  only  in  America 
but  also  in  Europe.  Poe  was  born  in  Boston  of  Southern 

1  See  Professor  Trent's  biography,  "  American  Men  of  Letters" 
Series,  1892. 


150  The  Nineteenth  Century 

parents,  in  the  year  which  saw  the  birth  of  Tennyson, 
Darwin,  Gladstone,  and  Holmes.  His  mother,  Elizabeth 
Arnold  Poe,  was  an  actress,  who  died  in  1811  of  consump 
tion;  his  father,  David  Poe,  Jr.,  for  a  time  a  strolling  player, 
was  a  man  of  little  force ;  tradition  represents  him  as  dying 
young,  a  victim  of  consumption  and  alcoholism.  Adopted 
after  his  mother's  death  by  John  Allan  of  Richmond, 
Virginia,  the  boy  Edgar  Poe  was  wondered  at  and  spoiled 
by  his  foster-parents,  who  were  people  of  means  and 
position.  When  they  went  abroad  in  1 8 1 5 ,  Poe  was  entered 
at  the  Manor  House  School,  Stoke  Newington,  near  London; 
here  he  remained  five  years,  imbibing  the  influences  of  a 
half-rural  scene  whose  ancient  buildings  and  historical 
associations  have  since  been  swallowed  up  by  the  me 
tropolis.  From  1820  to  1825  he  was  at  school  in  Richmond. 
As  a  child,  Poe  was  beautiful  and  clever;  as  a  youth  he  was 
superior  rather  than  abnormal.  He  learned  quickly  though 
not  accurately;  for  the  inaccuracy  his  teachers  were  in 
part  to  blame.  He  was  lithe,  swift  of  foot,  an  excellent 
swimmer,  and,  though  proud  and  self-centred,  could  play 
the  leader  among  his  fellows.  By  the  time  he  was  ready 
for  college,  he  showed  the  effects  of  indulgence  on  the  part 
of  the  Allans,  being  imperious  and  wilful,  unduly  sensitive 
as  to  his  state  of  orphanage,  and  squandering  his  too  abun 
dant  pocket-money.  During  his  brief  residence  at  the 
University  of  Virginia  (1826),  Poe  maintained  high  scholar 
ship  in  Latin  and  French,  but  lived  the  life  of  his  com 
panions,  drinking  (though  apparently  not  to  excess)  and 
incurring  gambling  debts  which  his  guardian  repudiated. 
Set  to  work  in  the  counting-room  of  Mr.  Allan,  the  young 
man  rebelled  and  ran  away  to  Boston,  probably  under  an 
assumed  name,  and  without  capital  save  a  sheaf  of  imma 
ture  poems.  He  soon  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  army, 
made  his  peace  with  his  guardian,  and  was  sent  to  West 
Point.  Here  again  he  proved  a  clever  student;  but,  pur 
posely  neglecting  the  routine,  in  1831  he  was  discharged. 


The  Novelists  151 

Obliged  henceforth  to  depend  on  his  own  resources, 
Poe  now  approached  almost  to  the  point  of  starvation, 
when  by  his  "Manuscript  Found  in  a  Bottle"  (1833)  he 
gained  a  prize  of  one  hundred  dollars  offered  by  the  Balti 
more  Saturday  Visiter,  and  through  John  P.  Kennedy, 
whom  Poe  called  "the  first  true  friend  I  ever  had,"  ob 
tained  temporary  relief  for  his  wants  and  help  in  getting 
literary  work.  He  now  became  a  contributor  to,  and  soon 
the  literary  editor  of,  The  Southern  Literary  Messenger. 
His  numerous  stories  and  criticisms  did  much  to  make  the 
magazine  successful  and  famous.  In  1836  Poe  married 
his  beautiful  cousin  Virginia  Clemm,  who  lacked  three 
months  of  being  fourteen  years  of  age;  but  family  ties 
could  not  prevent  his  morally  weak  nature  from  occasional 
indulgence  in  drugs  and  intoxicants,  and  his  irregularities 
in  January,  1837,  brought  about  his  dismissal  from  the 
editorial  chair  of  the  Messenger,  for  which,  however,  he 
continued  to  write.  For  a  time  the  Poes  now  lived  in 
New  York,  practically  supported  by  Mrs.  Clemm,  who 
conducted  a  boarding-house.  Here  he  completed  and 
published  his  longest  story,  "The  Narrative  of  Arthur 
Gordon  Pym"  (1838),  a  tale  of  an  Antarctic  cruise  as  far 
south  as  the  84th  parallel,  based  on  Benjamin  Morell's 
"Narrative  of  Four  Voyages  to  the  South  Seas  and  Pacific" 
(1832)  with  frequent  dashes  of  Coleridge's  "Ancient 
Mariner,"  but  full  of  such  situations  of  blood-curdling 
horror  and  such  highly  imaginative  landscape-painting  as 
only  the  genius  of  Poe  could  produce.  The  years  1838—44 
Poe  spent  in  Philadelphia.  In  1839  he  collected  and  pub 
lished  his  "Tales  of  the  Grotesque  and  the  Arabesque." 
He  wrote  constantly  for  Graham's  Magazine,  of  which  he 
was  editor  from  1840  till  1843;  critiques,  essays,  and 
tales  flowed  from  his  pen.  In  imaginative  story-telling, 
this  was  the  period  of  his  best  work.  His  occasional 
lapses  into  intoxication  are  partly  explained  by  the  fits 
of  insanity  brought  on  by  anxiety  over  the  precarious 


i52  The  Nineteenth  Century 

condition  of  his  wife,  who  in  1841  ruptured  a  blood-vessel 
while  singing  and  who  hovered  between  life  and  death 
for  six  years.  The  year  1844  found  him  back  in  New 
York,  associated  first  with  N.  P.  Willis  on  The  Evening 
Mirror  and  later  with  Charles  F.  Briggs  on  The  Broad 
way  Journal.  The  publication  of  "The  Raven"  in  the 
Mirror  (January  29,  1845)  and  °f  his  "Tales"  (1845) 
greatly  increased  his  reputation ;  but  with  curious  and  fatal 
perversity  he  proceeded  to  make  enemies  by  trying  to  palm 
off  upon  the  Boston  Lyceum  (October  16,  1845)  a  juvenile 
poem,  "Al  Aaraaf, "  as  a  new  work  and  by  sharply  casti 
gating  his  literary  contemporaries  in  "The  Literati  of  New 
York. "  The  next  year  he  removed  his  family  to  Ford- 
ham,  a  suburb  of  New  York.  Here  his  young  wife  died 
in  1847,  of  consumption;  and  he  never  really  recovered 
from  the  shock.  He  conceived  various  literary  enter 
prises;  but  he  had  become  virtually  a  physical  and  moral 
wreck,  unable  to  work  except  at  long  intervals.  Toward 
the  end  of  1848  he  proposed  marriage  to  Mrs.  Sarah  Helen 
Whitman,  a  Providence  poet,  and  was  accepted;  but  the 
match  was  broken  off  in  consequence  of  Poe's  drinking  to 
excess.  He  now  determined  to  go  South  to  lecture  and 
procure  funds  with  which  to  publish  a  magazine  to  be  called 
The  Stylus.  At  Philadelphia  he  had  an  attack  of  delirium 
tremens.  Recovering,  he  went  on  to  Richmond,  where  he 
spent  the  summer  of  1849.  He  proposed  marriage  to  an 
old  flame,  Mrs.  Sarah  Elmira  Shelton,  then  a  widow,  who 
gave  him  some  encouragement.  About  this  time  he  signed 
a  pledge  to  abstain  from  all  intoxicating  drinks,  and  made 
a  new  start  in  life.  A  lecture  at  the  Exchange  Hotel  brought 
him  some  $1500;  and  with  this  in  his  pocket  he  started  for 
New  York  to  close  up  some  business  and  take  Mrs.  Clemm 
back  with  him;  but  stopping  in  Baltimore  en  route  he  was 
induced  to  drink  some  wine,  went  on  a  debauch,  and  a  few 
days  later  (October  yth)  died  in  a  hospital  of  brain  fever. 
There  is  ground  for  believing  that  he  had  been  drugged 


The  Novelists  153 

by  political  toughs  on  election  day  (October  3d)  and  carried 
to  various  polls  to  vote  for  the  Whig  candidates. 

Such  was  the  pathetic  and  tragic  career  of  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  of  American  literary  men.  Few  lives  have 
been  the  subjects  of  so  much  controversy.  In  estimating 
his  character,  justice  must  be  tempered  with  mercy;  and 
this  is  the  easier  now  that  it  is  seen  that,  during  at  least 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  his  mental  condition  was  ab 
normal  if  not  pathological.1  He  inherited  tendencies 
which  he  was  unable  to  control,  and  with  which  his  en 
vironment  wholly  unfitted  him  to  cope.  When  sober  and 
sane,  he  was  a  quiet,  well-bred,  and  refined  gentleman, 
who  could  talk  fascinatingly  and  in  whom  women  found 
"a  peculiar  and  irresistible  charm";  he  was  capable,  more 
over,  of  working  hard  and  efficiently.  When  under  the 
influence  of  opium  or  intoxicating  liquors,  he  was  a  wholly 
different  man,  with  whom,  fortunately,  we  are  not  here 
concerned.  With  the  two  exceptions  of  his  wife  and 
mother-in-law,  he  formed  no  close  and  lasting  attach 
ments.  He  was  always  deeply  self-centred  and  found  it 
impossible  to  enter  sympathetically  into  the  lives,  sorrows, 
and  aspirations  of  others.  Thus  his  sensitive  temperament 
more  and  more  withdrew  into  itself  and  found  its  kindred 
in  the  phantasms  of  his  powerful  imagination. 

Poe's  genius  is  probably  best  expressed  in  his  tales. 
They  are  not  bulky  in  extent;  in  the  Putnam  edition  they 
fill  five  octavo  volumes.  Many  of  them  are  marred  by 
journalistic  looseness  and  mannerisms — too  much  use  of  the 
parenthesis,  the  too  constant  recurrence  of  favourite  words 
and  phrases.  Occasionally  he  misses  good  opportunities 
for  telling  dramatic  effects  and  contrasts;  and  in  general 
it  may  be  admitted  that  the  element  of  human  passion, 
"save  in  its  minor  chords  of  sorrow  and  despair,"  is 
notably  absent  from  his  works.  A  passionate  lover  him- 

1  See  Emile  Lauvriere,  "Edgar  Poe,  sa  vie  et  son  oeuvre,  6tude 
de  psychologic  pathologique, "  Paris,  1904. 


154  The  Nineteenth  Century 

self,  his  artistic  genius  was  not  concerned  with  the  ordinary 
love-story.  His  lack  of  a  sense  of  humour,  too,  has  been 
remarked.  His  attempts  to  be  humorous  cannot  be 
pronounced  successful.  Finally,  some  of  his  tales,  "Arthur 
Gordon  Pym"  for  example,  contain  matter  so  repulsive 
that  the  wonder  is  that  any  person  could  endure  reading 
them,  much  less  writing  them. 

Yet  the  fact  remains  that  on  a  large  number  of  these 
tales  is  the  unmistakable  stamp  of  genius.  It  may  be 
well  to  recall  the  classification  of  them  adopted  by  Messrs. 
Stedman  and  Woodberry.  We  have  first  the  "Romances 
of  Death,"  of  which  the  most  famous  are  "The  Fall  of 
the  House  of  Usher, "  "  Ligeia, ' '  and  ' '  Eleonora ' ' ;  then  come 
the  "Old  World  Romances,"  of  which  "The  Masque  of  the 
Red  Death,"  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado,"  and  "The  Pit  and 
the  Pendulum"  are  probably  most  read.  In  the  second 
volume  we  find  three  groups,  "Tales  of  Conscience,  Natural 
Beauty,  and  Pseudo-Science,"  the  last  including  his  "MS. 
Found  in  a  Bottle"  and  "Hans  Pfaall."  In  the  third  are 
"Tales  of  Ratiocination,"  including  the  famous  "Gold- 
Bug,"  the  harrowing  "Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue,"  and 
the  perfect  detective  story  "The  Purloined  Letter";  and 
"Tales  of  Illusion,"  including  the  horrible  "Oblong  Box." 
Then  come  the  "Extravaganzas  and  Caprices"  and  lastly 
the  two  "Tales  of  Adventure  and  Exploration,"  namely, 
"Arthur  Gordon  Pym"  and  "Julius  Rodman."  It  will  be 
evident  that  Poe  achieved  success  in  two  markedly  distinct 
classes  of  tales:  those  in  which  a  purely  intellectual  puzzle  is 
worked  out,  and  those  in  which  a  definite  emotional  effect 
is  produced.  The  "Tales  of  Ratiocination"  were  the  fore 
runners  of  a  long  line  of  "detective  stories" — by  Gaboriau, 
De  Boisgobey,  Wilkie  Collins,  Conan  Doyle,  and  others, — 
in  none  of  which  does  one  find  a  keener  analytical  mind  than 
that  of  Monsieur  Dupin.  "The  Gold-Bug"  undoubtedly 
suggested  to  Stevenson  some  features  of  "Treasure  Island." 
Likewise  in  such  stories  as  "Hans  Pfaall,"  Poe  was  the 


The  Novelists  155 

pioneer  in  compounding  flights  of  imagination  with  bits  of 
popular  science,  being  followed  by  Jules  Verne  and  others 
of  his  class.  Of  the  tales  charged  with  emotion,  the  best 
are  probably  the  three  "Romances  of  Death"  mentioned 
above.  In  these,  it  has  been  said,  we  see  the  highest  reach 
of  the  romantic  element  in  Poe's  genius.  The  lady  Ligeia 
is  pure  spirit,  without  human  qualities,  the  maiden  of  a 
dream.  The  framework  of  the  tale  is  slight;  it  is  merely 
a  prose-rhapsody  on  the  theme  expressed  in  the  words  of 
old  Glanvill,  "Man  doth  not  yield  himself  to  the  angels, 
nor  unto  death  utterly,  save  only  through  the  weakness  of 
his  own  feeble  will."  This  theme,  the  supremacy  of  mind 
over  matter,  was  one  over  which  Poe  busied  himself  much ; 
but  to  scientific  thought  on  the  subject  he  contributed 
little  of  value.  It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that 
Poe  was  the  first  to  write  this  sort  of  tale,  the  "psychical 
story,"  in  which  Stevenson  and  others  later  outdid  him. 
He  was  a  subtle  psychologist  of  certain  moods  and  qualities, 
and  understood  the  fiercer  passions  of  terror  and  remorse 
as  have  few  other  men;  of  this,  "William  Wilson"  furnishes 
abundant  proof.  But  his  range  is  limited,  and  most 
readers,  tired,  like  the  Lady  of  Shalott,  of  shadows,  soon 
long  to  change  his  world  of  mystery  and  madness  and  death 
for  the  real  world  of  sane  and  kindly,  if  commonplace, 
men  and  women. 

According  to  the  old  maxim,  however,  we  must  take 
the  artist  for  what  he  is.  Poe  chose  his  material  and  his 
setting  as  his  artistic  genius  guided  him;  that  he  made 
skilful  use  of  this  material  there  can  be  little  doubt. 
Within  his  narrow  range,  he  is  absolute  master.  His  in 
tensity,  his  eloquence,  his  skill  in  the  choice  and  repeti 
tion  of  words  force  the  reader  to  yield  to  the  spell  and 
believe  for  the  moment  even  in  the  impossible.  His  limita 
tions  have  been  well  set  forth  by  Professor  Woodberry: 

Being  gifted  with  the  dreaming  instinct,  the  myth-making 
faculty,  the  allegorising  power,  and  with  no  other  poetic  element 


156  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  high  genius,  he  exercised  his  art  in  a  region  of  vague  feeling, 
symbolic  ideas,  and  fantastic  imagery,  and  wrought  his  spell 
largely  through  sensuous  effects  of  colour,  sound,  and  gloom,  height 
ened  by  lurking  but  unshaped  suggestions  of  mysterious  meanings. 

Symbolism  is  indeed  evident  throughout  his  imaginative 
works;  in  "The  Black  Cat,"  for  example,  remorse  is  in 
dicated  by  the  cat's  naming  eye;  in  " William  Wilson,"  a 
guilty  conscience  is  the  man's  double.  Of  ornamentation 
there  is  plenty;  Poe  revelled  in  a  wealth  of  beautiful 
images  of  Oriental  and  Gothic  splendour. 

In  some  of  his  tales,  Poe  reveals  a  certain  kinship  with 
Hawthorne.  Both  are  fond  of  dwelling  in  a  remote  world. 
Both  depict  states  of  the  soul;  brief  experiences;  evanescent 
dreams.  But  Hawthorne's  is  always  a  moral  world;  Poe's, 
while  never  immoral,  is  prevailingly  unmoral.  In  Haw 
thorne's  tales  we  are  never  long  forgetful  of  the  Puritan 
heritage  of  conscience;  Poe's  indifference  to  moral  issues 
is  a  not  surprising  result  of  his  cavalier  temperament. 
Both  writers  undoubtedly  owe  something  to  the  weird 
imagination  of  Ernst  Hoffmann  (1776-1822) ;  Poe  also  con 
tinues  the  literary  tradition  of  Mrs.  Radcliffe,  "Monk" 
Lewis,  and  the  "Tales  of  Terror."  Comparison  with  these 
writers  suggests  two  other  facts:  first,  that  Poe  was  not  a 
novelist,  but  a  writer  of  short  stories;  he  knew  little  about 
ordinary  life,  and  nothing  of  human  character,  save  through 
study  of  his  own;  he  preferred  a  small  canvas  whereon  his 
picture  should  be  painted  with  Pre-Raphaelite  fidelity  and 
elaborate  pains,  and  was  unable  or  unwilling  to  under 
take  a  work  on  the  scale  of  what  we  now  call  novels; 
secondly,  that  he  was  always  a  romancer,  with  a  bias  for 
medievalism  as  pronounced  as  if  his  characters  wore  armour 
and  his  pages  were  full  of  tournaments  and  chivalry. 

If  Poe  has  often  been  without  honour  in  his  own  country 
and  in  England,  he  has  been  enthusiastically  received  on 
the  Continent.  In  France  he  early  became  known  through 
the  magnificent  translation  of  Charles  Baudelaire,  and  his 


The  Novelists  157 

influence  has  never  waned. 1  In  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany 
he  continues  to  be  widely  read  and  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  foremost  man  of  letters  hitherto  produced  by 
America.  Time,  that  relentless  and  perverse  critic,  has 
given  him  a  place  of  honour  among  the  makers  of  world- 
literature,  and  his  fame  is  secure. 

Some  Minor  Writers. — At  the  novel-writing  contem 
poraries  of  Kennedy,  Simms,  and  Poe  we  can  take  but  a 
passing  glance.  James  Lawson  (1799-1880),  a  Scotchman 
who,  graduating  from  the  University  of  Glasgow,  came  to 
America  in  1815  and  engaged  in  the  mercantile  and  in 
surance  business,  is  remembered  for  his  "Tales  and  Sketches 
by  a  Cosmopolite"  (1830),  mainly  relating  to  Scottish 
domestic  life  and  romance.  He  was  a  friend  of  Edwin 
Forrest  and  Gilmore  Simms.  Richard  Penn  Smith  (1799- 
1854)  was  the  author  of  "The  Forsaken"  (1831),  a 
novel  of  the  American  Revolution  still  worth  reading. 
Henry  William  Herbert  (1807-58),  eldest  son  of  the  Rev. 
William  Herbert,  dean  of  Manchester,  was  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Cambridge  with  distinction  in  1829  and 
in  1830  came  to  America,  engaging  in  teaching  Greek 
and  writing  for  magazines.  In  1834  he  published  a  his 
torical  novel,  "The  Brothers,  a  Tale  of  the  Fronde,"  which 
he  had  begun  in  The  American  Monthly  Magazine;  fol 
lowing  it  up  with  "Cromwell"  (1837),  "Marmaduke 
Wyvil"  (1843),  and  "The  Roman  Traitor"  (1848),  a 
romance  founded  on  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline.  He  also 
wrote  many  tales  and  sketches  of  romantic  incidents  in 
European  history.  As  a  writer  on  sports,  under  the  name 
of  "Frank  Forester,"  he  became  a  popular  authority,  and 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  writer  who  introduced 
field  sports  into  American  fiction. 

1  See  Louis  P.  Betz,  "Edgar  Poe  in  der  franzosischen  Literatur," 
in  his  "Studien  zur  vergleichenden  Literaturgeschichte  der  neueren 
Zeit, "  Frankfurt  a.  M.,  1902;  "Edgar  Poe  in  Deutschland, "  Die 

it,  xxxv.   8-9,  21—23,  Vienna,   1903. 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

Robert  Montgomery  Bird  (1805-54),  a  native  of  Dela 
ware,  began  his  literary  career  by  writing  tragedies;  one 
of  these,  "The  Gladiator,"  was  frequently  played  by 
Edwin  Forrest.  His  first  two  novels,  "Calavar"  (1834) 
and  "The  Infidel"  (1835),  were  descriptions  of  life  in  Mexico 
during  the  Spanish  conquest;  while  "Nick  of  the  Woods, 
or  The  Jibbenainosay "  (1837),  powerfully  portrayed  the 
thirst  for  vengeance  aroused  in  American  backwoodsmen, 
and  thus  sharply  contrasted  the  real  Indians  with  the 
somewhat  idealised  types  in  Cooper's  stories.  He  also 
wrote  "Sheppard  Lee"  (1836),  "The  Hawks  of  Hawk 
Hollow"  (1835),  and  "The  Adventures  of  Robin  Day" 
(1839),  a  romantic  novel  of  adventure.  Although  con 
scientious,  he  was  not  a  skillful  writer,  and  his  extrava 
gant  and  exciting  tales  are  no  longer  read.  Theodore 
Sedgwick  Fay  (1807-98),  a  New  York  lawyer  and  journalist, 
was  the  author  of  "Norman  Leslie"  (1835),  a  somewhat 
tame  and  highly  moralised  picture  of  life  in  New  York 
City  at  the  beginning  of  the  century ;  its  poverty  of  artistic 
merit  excited  the  wrath  of  Poe,  who  helped  to  consign  it 
to  a  merciful  oblivion.  Fay  also  wrote  two  novels  directed 
against  the  practice  of  duelling:  "The  Countess  Ida"  (1840), 
the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Europe,  and  "Hoboken,  a  Ro 
mance  of  New  York"  (1843),  the  action  of  which  takes 
place  in  a  locality  notorious  for  the  duels  fought  there. 
In  1835  appeared  "Grace  Seymour"  by  Hannah  F.  Lee 
(1780-1865),  a  story  for  the  young,  and,  like  the  stories 
of  Fay,  with  a  moral  purpose.  In  "Clinton  Bradshaw" 
(1835),  Frederick  William  Thomas  (1811-66)  painted 
with  moderate  success  the  social  life  of  New  York  in 
the  early  years  of  the  century.  Like  Fay,  however, 
Thomas  was  too  easily  led  from  the  path  of  artistic 
virtue  by  his  desire  to  improve  the  minds  of  his  readers. 
Thomas  also  wrote  "East  and  West"  (1836),  in  which 
he  ably  described  a  Mississippi  steamboat  race,  and 
"  Howard  Pinckney"  (1840),  a  novel  of  contemporary 


The  Novelists  159 

life  in  which   both    plot   and   character  are  handled  not 
without   skill. 

Daniel  Pierce  Thompson. — The  moral  and  educational 
improvement  of  the  reader  is  likewise  an  evident  purpose 
in  the  work  of  Daniel  Pierce  Thompson  (1793-1868),  a 
Vermont  jurist,  whose  "May  Martin,  or  The  Money- 
Digger"  appeared  in  1835.  His  most  famous  work,  which 
is  still  widely  read,  was  "The  Green  Mountain  Boys,  a 
Romance  of  the  Revolution"  (1840),  in  which  are  described 
the  early  methods  of  fighting  the  Indians.  Other  stories  of 
New  England  life  from  his  pen  were  "Locke  Amsden,  or 
The  Schoolmaster"  (1845),  in  which  he  evidently  drew 
upon  his  own  experience,  "Lucy  Hosmer"  (1848),  "The 
Rangers,  or  The  Tory's  Daughter"  (1851),  a  story  deal 
ing  with  the  Revolutionary  campaigns  of  1777  in  Vermont, 
"Tales  of  the  Green  Mountains"  (1852),  "Gaut  Gurley, 
or  The  Trappers  of  Lake  Umbagog"  (1857),  and  "The 
Doomed  Chief"  (1860). 

Hall,  Hildreth,  Hoffman. — While  Thompson  was  de 
lineating  Vermont  life,  James  Hall  (1793-1868)  wrote  of 
the  then  far  West.  Born  in  Philadelphia,  Hall  saw  service 
in  the  War  of  1812,  and  in  1820  went  to  Illinois  and  en 
gaged  in  law  and  newspaper  work.  His  "Sketches  of 
History,  Life,  and  Manners  in  the  West"  (1835)  and  sev 
eral  later  volumes  of  tales  are  characterised  by  a  natural 
and  easy  style,  much  skill  in  narrative,  and  general  fidelity 
to  detail.  The  distinction  of  writing  the  first  of  the  army 
of  anti-slavery  novels  belongs  to  the  historian  Richard  Hil 
dreth  (1807-65).  "Archy  Moore"  (1837)  was  republished 
in  England,  being  reviewed  by  The  Spectator  and  other 
papers.  A  rather  extravagant  narrative,  it  purports  to 
be  the  autobiography  of  a  Virginia  slave  during  the  War 
of  1812.  A  second  edition  with  a  continuation  was  pub 
lished  in  1852  as  "The  White  Slave."  Charles  Fenno 
Hoffman  (1806-84),  after  studying  at  Columbia  College  and 


160  The  Nineteenth  Century 

preparing  for  the  bar,  practised  law  for  three  years  in  New 
York,  then  abandoned  it  for  journalism  and  literature. 
He  was  the  founder  of  The  Knickerbocker  Magazine,  asso 
ciated  later,  for  many  years,  with  the  name  of  its  editor, 
Lewis  Gaylord  Clark,  and  was  connected  with  various 
other  periodicals.  His  two  novels,  "Greyslaer"  (1840), 
founded  on  the  celebrated  Beauchamp  murder  case  in 
Kentucky, — a  novel  of  intense  interest  which  reminds  some 
readers  of  Cooper, — and  "Vanderlyn"  (published  serially 
in  The  American  Monthly  Magazine  in  1837),  like  his  other 
writings,  reflect  a  generous  and  refined  character.  His 
promising  career  was  cut  short  in  1849  by  insanity. 

William  Ware. — In  March,  1836,  there  appeared  in 
The  Knickerbocker  Magazine  the  first  of  a  series  of  ' '  Letters 
from  Palmyra,"  which  aroused  much  interest.  They 
purported  to  be  written  by  a  young  Roman  noble  who 
visited  Palmyra  in  the  reign  of  Zenobia.  They  vividly 
presented  the  everyday  life  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  at 
once  gave  their  author  high  rank  as  a  classical  scholar. 
William  Ware  (1797-1852)  graduated  from  Harvard  Col 
lege  in  1816  and  became  a  Unitarian  clergyman;  for  some 
years  he  edited  The  Christian  Examiner.  The  "Letters 
from  Palmyra"  were  published  in  book  form  in  1837; 
the  book  is  now  called  "Zenobia,"  from  the  title  of  the 
English  reprint.  It  was  followed  in  1838  by  a  sequel, 
"Probus, "  in  which  the  last  persecution  of  Roman  Chris 
tians  is  ably  and  energetically  described.  The  title  of  this 
book  was  afterward  changed  to  "Aurelian. "  His  third 
novel,  "Julian,  or  Scenes  in  Judea"  (1841),  narrated  many 
episodes  in  the  life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  crucifixion 
forming  a  powerful  climax  to  the  story. 

Mathews  and  Briggs. — A  highly  imaginative  and  some 
what  absurd  romance  entitled  "Behemoth,  a  Legend  of 
the  Mound-Builders"  (1839)  was  the  work  of  Cornelius 


The  Novelists  161 

Mathews  (1817-89),  a  New  York  dramatist  and  maga 
zine  writer.  His  "Career  of  Puffer  Hopkins"  (1841)  set 
forth  some  phases  of  contemporary  political  life;  it  first 
appeared  serially  in  Arcturus,  which  Mathews  edited  in 
1840-42.  Another  novel  of  his  was  "Moneypenny,  or  The 
Heart  of  the  World"  (1850),  a  story  of  city  and  country 
life.  All  of  Mathews'  stories,  however,  have  a  journalistic 
flavour.  In  the  same  year  with  Mathews,  Charles  Frederick 
Briggs  (1840-77),  a  New  York  journalist,  entered  the  ranks 
of  the  novelists  with  his  "Adventures  of  Harry  Franco,  a 
Tale  of  the  Great  Panic"  (1839),  following  it  with  "The 
Haunted  Merchant"  (1843)  anci  ''The  Trippings  of  Tom 
Pepper"  (1847).  All  of  his  novels  have  a  certain  value 
as  humorous  pictures  of  New  York  City  life;  through 
them  runs  a  vein  of  amusing  satire.  Briggs  was  later  the 
first  editor  of  Putnam's  Monthly. 

Henry  W.  Longfellow. — It  was  in  1839  also  that  Long 
fellow  published  his  once  popular  "  Hyperion,  a  Romance, " 
in  which,  in  connection  with  a  pathetic  love  story,  he 
mainly  sought,  in  the  style  of  Richter,  to  convey  his  ro 
mantic  impressions  of  the  life  and  traditions  of  the  Old 
World.  The  volume  is  charged,  if  not  surcharged,  with 
sentiment.  Paul  Flemming's  enthusiasm  for  the  quaint  and 
picturesque  in  European  lore  and  scenery  takes  us  back  to 
the  days  when  Continental  Europe  was  for  Americans  a 
land  of  romance,  and  when  visits  to  the  Old  World 
were  still  not  accomplished  without  difficulty  and  had  not 
lost  their  novelty.  Of  a  wholly  different  texture  is  the 
only  other  prose  tale  written  by  Longfellow,  "Kavanagh, 
a  Tale,"  which  appeared  in  1849  and  which  probably 
suffered  by  coming  so  near  the  romantic  and  fascinating 
"Evangeline."  It  is  a  bookish  and  uneventful  story  of 
New  England  life;  Hawthorne  said  of  it,  "Nobody  but 
yourself  would  dare  to  write  so  quiet  a  book."  Yet  it  is 
written  in  a  characteristically  graceful  style,  and  shows 


162  The  Nineteenth  Century 

that  the  scholar-poet  was  a  good  observer  of  the  life  around 
him,  though  he  could  not  give  that  life  an  air  of  reality 
in  his  portraiture. 

John  Lothrop  Motley. — The  fame  of  Motley's  historical 
work  has  obscured  the  reputation  of  his  fiction.  "Morton's 
Hope,  or  The  Memoirs  of  a  Provincial"  (1839),  like  "Hy 
perion,"  recalls  the  interest  in  German  university  life 
which  was  becoming  general  in  America — a  life  which 
Motley  vividly  describes.  From  Germany  the  hero  returns 
to  participate  in  the  American  Revolution,  in  which  he 
distinguishes  himself.  In  "Merry  Mount,  a  Romance  of 
the  Massachusetts  Colony"  (1849),  Motley  utilised  the 
story  of  Thomas  Morton,  the  jolly  Royalist  who  with  his 
followers  settled  near  Boston  in  1626  and  whose  revelry- 
shocked  his  staid  Puritan  neighbours.  As  a  historical  pic 
ture,  it  has  high  value.  Both  of  these  novels,  abounding 
in  carefully  wrought  descriptions  and  gleams  of  genuine 
humour,  deserved  greater  success  than  they  had. 

Caroline  M.  Kirkland. — A  similar  service  was  done 
for  life  in  Michigan  by  Caroline  M.  Kirkland  (1801-64), 
whose  humorous  and  lively  descriptions  of  frontier  life, 
"A  New  Home;  Who'll  Follow?"  (1839),  "Forest  LifeM 
(1842),  and  "Western  Clearings"  (1846),  were  in  their 
day  successful  and  popular.  Mrs.  Kirkland's  early  works 
were  published  over  the  pen-name  of  "Mrs.  Mary  Clavers." 
Her  literary  career  extended  over  a  quarter  of  a  century, 
and  she  was  long  a  popular  contributor  to  magazines  and 
annuals. 

The  Forties. — The  decade  of  1840-50  saw  the  advent 
of  no  writers  of  enduring  reputation.  "Charles  Elwood, 
or  The  Infidel  Converted"  (1840),  a  kind  of  philosophical 
autobiography  by  Orestes  A.  Brownson  (1803—76),  is  really 
an  essay  in  the  guise  of  a  novel,  and  can  here  only  be 
mentioned.  Brownson  was  successively  a  Presbyterian,  a 


The  Novelists  163 

Universalist,  a  Unitarian,  and  a  Roman  Catholic;  as  a 
thinker,  he  might  be  called  a  Christian  Socialist.  Epes 
Sargent  (1813-80),  a  student  at  Harvard  College,  who 
became  a  journalist  and  a  popular  dramatist,  was  the 
author  of  several  juveniles,  two  of  which,  "Wealth  and 
Worth"  (1840)  and  "What's  to  be  Done?"  (1841),  had 
a  large  sale;  and  of  two  now  forgotten  novels,  "Fleetwood, 
or  The  Stain  of  Birth"  (1845)  and  "Peculiar,  a  Tale  of 
the  Great  Transition"  (1864),  a  story  of  changes  in  the 
South  in  the  Civil  War.  Washington  Allston's  "Monaldi" 
(1841),  an  Italian  romance  with  an  Othello-like  motif, 
really  belongs  to  an  earlier  generation,  having  been  written 
as  early  as  1821,  and  intended  apparently  for  publica 
tion  in  Dana's  Idle  Man.  It  is  a  powerful  but  harrowing 
story  in  which  the  progress  of  jealousy  is  traced  through 
out  its  course.  Maria  J.  Mclntosh  (1803-78),  losing  her 
fortune  in  the  panic  of  1837,  adopted  authorship  as  a 
means  of  support  and  wrote  a  number  of  juveniles,  the 
first  of  which  was  "Blind  Alice"  (1841),  and  all  of  which 
were  intended  to  illustrate  the  moral  sentiments.  Some 
of  her  stories  were  reprinted  in  London;  and  she  con 
tinued  to  write  for  more  than  twenty  years.  Maria  Brooks 
(1795—1845),  a  once  highly  praised  but  now  forgotten 
poet,  in  1843  privately  printed  a  prose  romance,  "Idomen, 
or  The  Vale  of  Yumuri,"  which  was  really  an  autobio 
graphy,  including  much  poetical  description  and  reflection. 

Sylvester  ]udd. — The  most  successful  picture  of  old 
New  England  life  ever  written,  down  to  the  time  of  its 
publication  (1845),  was  "Margaret,  a  Tale  of  the  Real 
and  Ideal."  It  was  this  book  which  Lowell,  in  his  "Fable 
for  Critics,"  spoke  of  as 

the  first  Yankee  book 

With  the  soul  of  Down  East  in  't,  and  things  farther  East, 
As  far  as  the  threshold  of  morning,  at  least, 
Where  awaits  the  fair  dawn  of  the  simple  and  true, 
Of  the  day  that  comes  slowly  to  make  all  things  new. 


164  The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  author,  Sylvester  Judd  (1813-53),  was  a  native  of 
Massachusetts  and  a  graduate  of  Yale  College,  who  had 
become  a  Unitarian  clergyman  and  settled  in  Augusta, 
Maine;  and  his  purpose  in  writing  was  "to  promote  the 
cause  of  liberal  Christianity."  Had  he  kept  this  purpose 
more  in  the  background,  his  place  among  the  greater 
novelists  would  have  been  sure;  for  he  had  observed 
closely  every  phase  of  Puritan  life  and  possessed  rare  gifts 
of  realistic  and  dramatic  story-telling.  Not  only  does  he 
correctly  describe  the  externals  of  New  England  places 
and  people,  down  to  the  niceties  of  dialect;  but  he  also 
interprets  with  rare  and  poetic  insight  the  moral  and 
spiritual  conflicts  into  which  his  characters  are  drawn. 
Another  novel  similar  to  "Margaret,"  "Richard  Edney 
and  the  Governor's  Family,"  appeared  in  1850;  it  deals 
with  the  career  of  a  New  England  country  youth.  Like  Mar 
garet,  the  hero  has  altogether  too  many  "experiences" — 
introduced  in  order  to  point  the  moral.  Yet  on  the  whole 
the  realism  of  these  novels  is  wholesome  and  fresh  and 
true. 

Herman  Melville. — A  follower  of  Cooper — though  at 
some  distance  in  point  of  quality — in  writing  stories  of 
the  sea,  was  Herman  Melville  (1819-91).  A  native  of 
New  York,  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  years  1837-44 
in  voyages  to  the  Pacific.  Of  his  observations  and  excit 
ing  experiences  he  made  good  use  in  a  long  series  of  tales, 
the  first  of  which,  "Typee"  (1846),  narrated  his  adven 
tures  in  the  Marquesas.  The  general  perception  of  the 
growing  importance  of  the  Pacific  doubtless  aided  in 
securing  for  Melville's  stories  the  most  favourable  recep 
tion,  both  in  America  and  in  England.  "Omoo,  a  Narra 
tive  of  Adventures  in  the  South  Seas"  (1847)  continued 
the  earlier  story,  with  no  less  vivid  pictures  of  sailor  life, 
fights  with  savages,  and  thrilling  escapes.  His  next  story, 
"Mardi,  and  a  Voyage  Thither"  (1849),  was  an  attempt 


The  Novelists  165 

at  a  philosophical  romance  contrasting  European  civilisa 
tion  and  Polynesian  savagery,  and,  though  it  contained 
some  able  descriptions,  its  vagaries  and  lack  of  sobriety 
doomed  it  to  failure.  "Redburn,  His  First  Voyage" 
(1849)  tells  of  a  journey  to  England,  and  includes  some 
realistic  horrors;  it  could  hardly  be  popular.  "The  White 
Jacket,  or  The  World  in  a  Man-of-War"  (1850)  is  a  pho 
tographic  narrative  of  experiences  on  board  a  United 
States  frigate.  Melville's  masterpiece  was  "Moby  Dick, 
or  The  Whale"  (1851);  though  an  uneven  work  of  ex 
cessive  length,  written  partly  in  a  strained,  Carlylesque 
style,  it  nevertheless  fills  the  reader  with  the  fascination 
of  the  sea.  The  fierce  contest  of  Captain  Ahab  with  the 
great  whale,  which  "becomes  a  representative  of  moral 
evil  in  the  world,"  is  not  unworthy  of  the  pen  of  a  greater 
writer.  Melville  never  afterward  came  up  to  the  standard  of 
this  work,  though  he  wrote  several  other  stories  and  novels, 
among  them  "Pierre,  or  The  Ambiguities"  (1852),  "Israel 
Potter"  (1855),  narrating  the  ad  ventures  of  a  Revolutionary 
soldier,  and  praised  by  Hawthorne  for  its  portraits  of  Paul 
Jones  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  "The  Piazza  Tales"  (1856), 
and  "The  Confidence  Man"  (1857). 

Mrs.  Judson  and  Others. — Mrs.  Emily  Chubbuck  Judson 
(1817-54),  third  wife  of  the  celebrated  Baptist  missionary 
Dr.  Adoniram  Judson,  and  best  known  by  her  pen  name 
of  "Fanny  Forester,"  in  her  "Alderbrook"  (1846),  a  collec 
tion  of  village  sketches,  described  girl  life  in  New  Eng 
land,  winning  a  reputation  which  lasted  for  many  years. 
Peter  Hamilton  Myers  (1812—78),  a  Brooklyn  lawyer,  was 
for  a  brief  time  remembered  for  his  historical  romances, 
"The  First  of  the  Knickerbockers,  a  Tale  of  1673"  (1848), 
"The  Young  Patroon,  or  Christmas  in  1690"  (1849),  "The 
King  of  the  Hurons"  (1849),  and  "The  Prisoner  of  the 
Border,  a  Tale  of  1838"  (1857).  Charles  Wilkins  Webber 
(1819-56),  the  son  of  a  Kentucky  physician,  inherited 


i66  The  Nineteenth  Century 

from  his  mother  a  fondness  for  out-of-door  life,  and  spent 
some  years  in  Texas.  Then  he  tried  in  succession  medi 
cine,  theology,  and  authorship.  His  stories  and  descriptions 
of  South-western  life  and  adventure  include  "Old  Hicks 
the  Guide"  (1848),  "The  Hunter  Naturalist"  (1851-53), 
illustrated  by  his  wife,  "Tales  of  the  Southern  Border" 
(1852),  and  "Shot  in  the  Eye"  (1853),  his  best  story.  He 
died  in  the  battle  of  Rivas,  in  Central  America. 

Mayo,  Kimball,  and  Wise. — William  Starbuck  Mayo 
(1812—95),  a  New  York  physician,  travelled  in  the  Barbary 
States,  and  on  returning  home  wrote  two  popular  novels, 
"Kaloolah,  or  Journeyings  in  the  Djebel  Kumri"  (1849) 
and  "The  Berber,  or  The  Mountaineer  of  the  Atlas"  (1850). 
The  former  purports  to  be  the  autobiography  of  Jonathan 
Romer,  who,  after  numerous  exciting  adventures  in  the 
American  woods,  goes  to  Africa,  has  various  hair's-breadth 
escapes,  fights  with  slave-traders  and  natives,  and  marries 
a  beautiful  dusky  princess.  In  its  satirical  remarks  on 
civilised  usages  it  imitates  "Gulliver."  "The  Berber,"  a 
story  of  more  regular  construction,  is  still  enjoyable.  It 
recounts  events  supposed  to  take  place  in  Africa  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  like  its  predecessor 
contains  minutely  accurate  descriptions  of  tropical  scenery 
and  animal  life.  Richard  B.  Kimball's  "St.  Leger,  or 
The  Threads  of  Life"  (1849),  reprinted  from  The  Knicker 
bocker,  was  a  serious  attempt  to  depict  a  mind  in  pursuit 
of  truth  in  a  story  in  which  romantic  adventure  plays 
some  part;  but  the  characters  are  not  strongly  marked. 
Henry  Augustus  Wise  (180:9-69),  son  of  a  naval  officer 
and  himself  a  lieutenant  in  the  Navy,  saw  the  humorous 
and  comic  side  of  the  seaman's  life,  and  chronicled  his 
impressions  in  "Los  Gringos,  or  An  Inside  View  of  Mexico 
and  California"  (1849),  and  still  more  successfully  in  his 
sprightly  and  sentimental  "Tales  for  the  Marines"  (1855), 
in  which  all  sorts  of  marvellous  and  amusing  things  happen. 


The  Novelists  167 

The  Decade  of  1850-60. — It  can  hardly  be  said  that 
the  next  decade,  1850-60,  saw  any  great  improvement  in 
the  quality  of  our  fiction ;  but  there  is  evident  an  increasing 
preference  for  realistic  studies  of  home  life,  and  a  growing 
indifference  to  the  highly  wrought  and  more  or  less  melo 
dramatic  romances  which  had  delighted  the  readers  of  an 
earlier  day.  For  many  reasons,  Americans  desired  to  see 
themselves  in  fiction,  doing  their  daily  work,  struggling 
with  everyday  temptations,  yielding  or  conquering  accord 
ing  to  their  native  strength  or  weakness.  There  was  a 
growing  sense  of  the  artistic — and  moral  or  didactic — 
value  of  common  life.  The  reaction  against  romance  was 
inevitable,  and  was  no  doubt  accelerated  by  the  coming 
of  railroads,  telegraphs,  Atlantic  cables,  and  the  contro 
versy  over  slavery. 

Ik  Marvel. — Significant,  then,  was  the  popularity,  which 
has  scarcely  waned,  of  "  Ik  Marvel's"  two  books,  "  Reveries 
of  a  Bachelor"  (1850)  and  "Dream  Life"  (1851).  The 
author,  Donald  G.  Mitchell  (born  in  1822),  was  a  product 
of  Connecticut  and  a  graduate  of  Yale,  whose  experience 
had  been  enriched  by  European  travel.  The  pernicious 
influence  of  Carlyle  upon  Mitchell's  style  is  too  evident; 
but  the  sentiment,  or  sentimentality,  the  enthusiasm,  the 
tender  pathos  of  these  slight  stories  have  appealed  to 
thousands.  In  his  "Dr.  Johns"  (1866),  Mitchell  brought 
the  stern  Calvinistic  theology  of  New  England  into  relief 
by  contrasting  it  with  French  frivolity. 

Edward  Everett  Hale. — Edward  Everett  Hale's  literary 
activity  has  extended  over  something  like  sixty  years. 
Born  in  Boston  in  1822,  and  graduated  from  Harvard  at 
seventeen,  he  became  a  journalist,  story-teller,  minister, 
historian,  and  antiquarian.  His  "  Margaret  Percival  in 
America,"  a  religious  novel,  appeared  in  1850,  and  he  has 
since  written  others,  "If,  Yes,  and  Perhaps"  (1868),  "Ten 


168  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Times  One  Is  Ten"  (1870),  "  In  His  Name "  (1874),  a  truth 
ful  and  glowing  narrative  of  the  Waldenses,  "  Philip  Nolan's 
Friends"  (1876),  the  gallant  hero  of  which,  the  Kentuckian 
Philip  Nolan,  was  "  the  protomartyr  to  Mexican  treachery," 
"The  Fortunes  of  Rachel"  (1884),  a  slight  but  clever  tale, 
and  "  East  and  West "  (1892) .  But  Dr.  Hale  is  best  known 
in  literature  by  his  short  stories.  "My  Double  and  How 
He  Undid  Me,"  published  in  The  Atlantic  for  September, 
1859,  was  a  clever  and  amusing  piece  which  made  a  great 
hit  and  immortalised  some  of  the  bores  of  his  parish. 
"The  Man  Without  a  Country"  (The  Atlantic,  December, 
1863)  brought  its  author  national  reputation  and  has  be 
come  a  classic.  It  has  been  justly  pronounced  "the  best 
sermon  on  patriotism  ever  written."  Speaking  of  sermons 
recalls  the  criticism  often  applied  to  Dr.  Hale's  stories,  that 
the  moral  is  too  obvious;  in  general,  however,  the  moral 
cannot  be  called  obtrusive  and  hardly  interferes  with  the 
general  effect  of  the  story. 

Alice  Gary. — Alice  Gary  (1822-71),  better  known  as  a 
poet,  wrote  pleasantly  appreciative  sketches  of  her  Ohio 
home  under  the  title  of  "  Clovernook,  or  Recollections  of 
our  Neighbourhood  in  the  West"  (1852) ;  a  second  series  of 
similar  sketches  was  published  in  1853.  Her  three  novels, 
"Hagar"  (1852),  "Married,  not  Mated"  (1856),  and  "The 
Bishop's  Son"  (1857),  were  characterised  by  power  of  ob 
servation  and  by  careful  literary  workmanship. 

The  Warners. — Susan  Warner  (1819-1885),  whose  earlier 
work  was  done  under  the  pen  name  of  "  Elizabeth  Wether- 
ell,"  became  well  known  through  the  publication  (1850) 
of  her  first  book  "The  Wide,  Wide  World."  This  was  a 
story  of  domestic  life  on  the  upper  Hudson,  which  showed 
an  exceptional  power  of  description  and  of  character 
study,  and  which  secured  very  promptly  wide  acceptance 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  With  the  single  exception 


The  Novelists  169 

of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  it  proved  to  be  the  most  popular 
novel  written  up  to  that  date  in  America,  and  it  had  the 
compliment  of  reproduction  in  a  long  series  of  unauthor 
ised  editions  in  Europe.  "The  Wide,  Wide  World"  was 
followed  by  a  series  of  stories,  of  which  the  most  important 
were  "Queechy"  (1852),  "The  Hills  of  the  Shatemuc" 
(1858),  "Diana"  (1859),  "Wych  Hazel"  (1860),  and  "The 
Gold  of  Chickaree"  (1861).  She  collaborated  with  her 
sister,  Anna  Bartlett  Warner  (born  in  1820),  in  the  produc 
tion  of  "  Dollars  and  Cents,"  which  was  issued  in  1853,  and 
in  some  successful  books  for  the  young,  "  Mr.  Rutherford's 
Children,"  etc. 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. — A  diligent  and  painstaking  writer 
of  fiction  for  thirty  years,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  (1811-96) 
is  to-day  remembered  only  as  the  author  of  a  single  book, 
and  that  one  almost  her  first.  The  daughter  of  Dr.  Lyman 
Beecher  of  Connecticut,  she  was  born  into  a  remarkably 
gifted  family  and  inherited  the  best  that  New  England 
Puritan  culture  could  give.  At  twenty-one  she  was  married 
to  Professor  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  then  a  teacher  in  the  divinity 
school  in  Cincinnati.  Here  she  had  an  opportunity  of 
studying  the  workings  of  slavery,  and  as  a  result  entered 
heart  and  soul  into  the  anti-slavery  movement.  In  the 
year  in  which  Hawthorne  published  his  "House  of  the  Seven 
Gables,"  Longfellow  "The  Golden  Legend,"  and  Melville 
"Moby  Dick, "  she  began  in  The  National  Era  a  serial  which 
aroused  wide  and  bitter  discussion.  The  next  year  (1852), 
"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"  appeared  in  book  form.  Over  three 
hundred  thousand  copies,  according  to  the  author,  were  sold 
within  a  year.  The  part  played  by  the  book  in  hastening 
the  "irrepressible  conflict"  of  the  Civil  War  cannot  be  esti 
mated.  It  is  not  hard  to  see  blemishes  in  the  story:  tame 
description^careless  and  loose  construction,  the  tone  of 
the  preacher;  but  these  are  rendered  insignificant  .by  the 
great  merits  of  the  book,  its  frequent  touches  of  humour, 


170  The  Nineteenth  Century 

its  range  and  variety  of  characters,  who  are  not  merely 
types  but  are  graphically  individualised,  its  broad  humanity, 
its  fierce  earnestness,  its  kindling  emotion.  These  may 
not  suffice  to  put  the  story  among  the  great  and  enduring 
works  of  literature;  but  it  will  be  long  before  America  out  - 
grows  her  fondness  and  admiration  for  it. 
followed  this  book  in  1856  with  "Dred"  (republished  in 
1866  as  "  Nina  Gordon"),  in  which  she  continued  to  depict 
effectively  the  position  of  slavery  with  reference  to  the 
church  and  the  law,  and  the  defeat  by  mob  violence  of  a 
high-minded  slave-owner  who  sought  to  purify  the  unholy 
system.  A  more  deliberate  and  carefully  planned  work 
than  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  it  has  generally  been  con 
sidered  as  inferior  in  power,  though  Harriet  Martineau 
thought  it  superior.  Old  Tiff  is  one  of  the  great  creations 
of  negro  character.  As  a  picture,  in  the  main  true,  of 
old-fashioned  Southern  life,  it  has  a  lasting  charm.  In 
"The  Minister's  Wooing"  (1859),  Mrs.  Stowe  turned  to 
New  England  life  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  and 
dealt  with  the  influence  of  the  older  Calvinism  upon  devout 
and  sensitive  minds.  In  artistic  construction  and  effect 
it  has  been  pronounced  superior  to  all  her  other  works; 
some  of  the  characters,  for  example,  Mary  Scudder  and 
Dr.  Hopkins,  are  notably  strong  and  impressive.  Yet, 
like  all  her  later  works,  it  has  been  overshadowed  by  that 
one  which  was  struck  out  in  a  white  heat  of  passionate 
appeal.  "The  Pearl  of  Orr's  Island"  (1861)  is  a  quiet 
story  of  Puritan  life  on  the  Maine  coast,  insufficiently  re 
lieved  by  a  few  thrilling  episodes.  In  "  Agnes  of  Sorrento" 
(1862),  the  result  of  a  visit  to  Europe,  Mrs.  Stowe  turned 
to  Italy  in  the  days  of  Savonarola,  but  achieved  even  less 
success  than  George  Eliot  did  in  the  next  year  with  "  Ro- 
mola."  In  1863,  the  Stowes  settled  permanently  at  Hart 
ford,  Connecticut;  and  after  the  war  they  acquired  a  winter 
residence  in  Florida.  The  best  of  Mrs.  Stowe's  numerous 
later  books  is  probably  "Oldtown  Folks"  (1869),  dealing 


The  Novelists  171 

with  life  in  Norfolk  County,  Massachusetts,  about  the  year 
1800,  and  portraying  some  very  realistic  characters.  Such 
stories  as  "Pink  and  White  Tyranny"  (1871),  "My  Wife 
and  I"  (1871),  and  "We  and  Our  Neighbours"  (1875),  in 
which  she  aimed  to  reform  fashionable  society,  though 
successful  in  respect  to  sales,  were  from  an  artistic  point 
of  view  decided  failures.  In  "  Sam  Lawson's  Fireside 
Stories"  (1871)  and  "  Poganuc  People "  (1878),  she  returned 
to  New  England  Yankees  and  the  life  she  most  successfully 
drew.  On  the  whole  it  must  be  said  that  her  reputation, 
while  it  lasts,  will  rest  chiefly  upon  "Uncle  Tom"  and  the 
New  England  stories. 

John  T.  Trowbridge. — One  of  the  most  popular  of 
writers  for  boys  is  John  Townsend  Trowbridge  (born  in 
1827).  Educated  in  the  common  schools,  he  learned  Latin, 
Greek,  and  French  by  himself,  taught  school,  worked  a 
year  on  an  Illinois  farm,  and  then  settled  down  to  writing 
in  New  York  City.  Some  of  his  books  are  "  Father  Bright- 
hopes"  (1853),  "Burrcliff"  (1853),  "Martin  Merrivale" 
(1854),  "Neighbour  Jackwood"  (1857),  a  famous  anti- 
slavery  novel,  perhaps  a  good  second  to  "Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin"  in  influence  and  popularity,  "  Cudjo's  Cave"  (1864), 
and  "Coupon  Bonds,  and  Other  Stories"  (1871).  He  has 
been  a  prolific  writer  of  healthful  and  finished  stories  for 
boys.  John  Burroughs  has  well  said  of  him:  "He  knows 
the  heart  of  a  boy  and  the  heart  of  a  man,  and  has  laid 
them  both  open  in  his  books." 

John  Esten  Cooke. — A  romancer  of  the  old  school  was 
John  Esten  Cooke  (1830-86),  a  younger  brother  of  Philip 
Pendleton  Cooke.  A  native  of  Virginia,  he  found  inspira 
tion  in  the  romantic  history  of  that  State,  drawing  many 
of  his  characters  from  life.  His  first  important  publication 
was  "  Leather  Stocking  and  Silk,  or  Hunter  John  Myers 
and  His  Times"  (1854);  his  best  story  proved  to  be  "The 


172  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Virginia  Comedians,  or  Old  Days  in  the  Old  Dominion" 
(1854),  which  deals  with  the  period  just  preceding  the  Rev 
olution,  and  which,  with  its  youthful  enthusiasm  and  inter 
esting  descriptions  of  colonial  manners,  has  been  called  by 
some  critics  the  best  novel  written  in  the  South  down  to 
the  Civil  War.  After  serving  in  the  Confederate  army, 
Cooke  sought  to  utilise  his  military  experiences  in  several 
dramatic  stories;  but  his  reputation  had  been  made,  and 
his  day  had  gone  by. 

Maria  S.  Cummins. — In  "The  Lamplighter"  (1854), 
Maria  S.  Cummins  (1827-66)  achieved  a  success  com 
parable  to  that  of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"  and  "Ben  Hur." 
In  "Mabel  Vaughan"  (1857)  she  produced  probably  a 
better  book.  Both  of  her  stories,  however,  while  in  the 
main  true  delineations  of  girl  and  home  life,  are  too  evi 
dently  written  with  a  didactic  aim,  and  are  at  times 
laboured  and  diffuse.  Her  other  stories,  "El  Fureidis" 
(1860),  a  story  of  Palestine,  and  "  Haunted  Hearts"  (1864), 
are  now  entirely  forgotten. 

Mrs.  Ann  Sophia  Stephens. — Mrs.  Ann  Sophia  Stephens 
(1813-86)  was  in  the  fifties  and  sixties  an  immensely  popu 
lar  novelist.  She  was  the  daughter  of  John  Winterbotham, 
an  English  woollen  manufacturer  who  had  come  to  America, 
and  was  born  at  Humphrey sville,  Connecticut.  In  1831, 
she  married  Edward  Stephens,  a  publisher,  and  began  in 
1835  to  edit  The  Portland  Magazine,  founded  by  her  hus 
band.  Later,  she  edited  The  Ladies'  Companion  and 
became  an  associate  editor  of  Graham's  and  Peterson's,  to 
which  she  contributed  over  twenty  serials.  Her  first 
elaborate  novel,  "Fashion  and  Famine"  (1854),  had  a 
very  large  circulation  and  was  three  times  translated  into 
French.  A  novel  of  affected  intensity,  it  contained  some 
excellent  delineation  of  character.  Among  her  other  wrorks 
were  "Zana,  or  The  Heiress  of  Clare  Hall"  (1854),  re- 


The  Novelists  173 

published  as  "The  Heiress  of  Greenhurst,"  "The  Old 
Homestead"  (1855),  "Sibyl  Chase"  (1862),  "The  Rejected 
Wife"  (1863),  "Married  in  Haste"  (1870),  "The  Reigning 
Belle"  (1872),  and  "Norton's  Rest"  (1877).  She  was 
attentive  to  details  and  wrote  in  a  condensed  and  forcible 
style. 

Marion  Harland. — Marion  Harland  is  the  pseudonym 
under  which  Mrs.  Mary  Virginia  Terhune  (born  in  1831),  a 
Virginian  of  New  England  ancestry,  became  known  for  a 
number  of  short  stories,  novels,  and  miscellaneous  matter. 
Her  fiction  is  of  the  romantic  type,  full  of  incident,  and 
dealing  with  brave  personages.  Some  of  her  stories  are 
"Alone,  a  Tale  of  Southern  Life  and  Manners"  (1854), 
"The  HiddenPath"  (1855),  "Moss-Side"  (1857),  "Miriam" 
(1860),  "Nemesis"  (1860),  "Husks"  (1863),  "Sunnybank" 
(1866),  "At  Last"  (1870),  "Judith"  (1883),  and  "A  Gallant 
Fight"  (1888).  She  has  been  editorially  connected  with  a 
number  of  juvenile  magazines. 

Curtis,  Willis,  Holland. — George  William  Curtis  be 
longs  in  the  main,  of  course,  with  the  essayists,  where  his 
life  will  be  narrated.  He  was  the  author  of  "Prue  and 
I "  (1856),  a  series  of  papers  written  originally  for  Putnam's, 
and  together  forming  a  slight  story  of  charming  domestic 
life,  in  which  sentiment,  fancy,  and  a  broad  optimistic 
philosophy  are  pervasive  features;  and  of  an  unsuccessful 
novel,  "Trumps"  (1861),  which  he  began  in  1859  as  a 
serial  in  Harper's  Weekly.  In  view  of  the  broad  experience 
of  its  author,  his  fondness  for  good  novels,  his  discriminat 
ing  taste,  his  facility  in  expression,  this  failure  of  "  Trumps  " 
was  remarkable.  The  truth  is  that  Curtis  had  not  rightly 
estimated  his  powers.  He  could  not  manage  an  elaborate 
plot  with  skill,  and  he  also  made  the  same  mistake  that 
marred  the  work  of  many  writers  already  noticed — he 
was  too  much  concerned  to  point  the  moral.  The  gen- 


174  The  Nineteenth  Century 

eral  effect,  as  Mr.  Gary  points  out,1  is  that  "Trumps" 
becomes  "  a  Sunday-school  story,  written  by  a  man  of  rare 
gifts,  some  of  which  betray  the  elusive  charm  of  genius, 
but  still  essentially  of  that  class,  producing,  and  apparently 
intended  to  produce,  the  impression  that  in  the  end  virtue 
triumphs  and  vice  comes  to  a  miserable  end."  In  the 
long  run,  this  is  eternally  true;  but  the  great  artists  do 
not  talk  about  it  very  much.  A  similar  failure,  though 
for  different  reasons,  was  the  one  novel  written  by  the 
prolific  Nathaniel  P.  Willis,  "  Paul  Fane,  or  Parts  of  a  Life 
Else  Untold"  (1857),  an  early  and  dull  experiment  in 
the  field  of  international  novels.  It  was  a  story  whose 
general  distortion  of  things  amounted  almost  to  caricature, 
since  it  was  based  on  superficial  rather  than  deep  and 
careful  observation  of  character.  In  the  same  year  Josiah 
Gilbert  Holland  (1819-81)  made  his  debut  in  the  field  of 
fiction  with  "The  Bay  Path,"  a  story  of  the  settlement 
of  the  Connecticut  Valley,  filled  largely  with  historical 
characters,  and  generally  faithful  to  the  manners  and 
thought  of  the  age  portrayed.  A  more  ambitious  story, 
"Miss  Gilbert's  Career"  (1860),  is  a  realistic  modern  novel 
in  which  a  characteristic  Yankee  community  is  described 
witt^great  fidelity.  His  later  novels,  "Arthur  Bonnicastle  " 
(1873),  "The  Story  of  Sevenoaks"  (1875),  and  "Nicholas 
Minturn"  (1877),  cannot  on  the  whole  be  said  to  possess 
high  literary  merit;  the  author  was  avowedly  a  moralist, 
and  the  best  that  can  be  said  of  them  is  that  they  did 
no  harm. 

Major  John  William  de  Forest. — Major  John  William  de 
Forest  (born  in  1826)  began  writing  fiction  with  a  very 
romantic  and  very  poor  novel  called  "Witching  Times," 
published  serially  in  Putnam's,  1856-57,  and  followed  it 
with  a  number  of  works  which  made  him  one  of  the  most 

» In  his  "George  William  Curtis"  ("American  Men  of  Letters"). 
Boston,  1894,  p.  124. 


The  Novelists  175 

popular  novelists  of  the  seventies — "Seacliff"  (1859), 
"Miss  Ravenel's  Conversion"  (1867),  a  book  out  of  his 
own  experience,  and  his  first  in  realistic  vein,  "Overland" 
(1871),  "Kate  Beaumont"  (1872),  "Honest  John  Vane" 
(1875),  "Playing  the  Mischief"  (1875),  and  many  others. 
Of  "Miss  Ravenel's  Conversion"  Mr.  Howells  has  said: 
"It  was  one  of  the  best  American  novels  that  I  had  known, 
and  was  of  an  advanced  realism  before  realism  was  known 
by  that  name." 

Robert  Lowell— In  1858  appeared  "The  New  Priest  of 
Conception  Bay,"  in  which  the  Rev.  Robert  Traill  Spence 
Lowell  (1816-91),  an  elder  brother  of  James  Russell 
Lowell,  and  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  painted  in  bright 
and  cheerful  colours  the  rural  life  of  Newfoundland  with 
which  he  became  familiar  during  his  sojourn  at  Bay 
Roberts  in  1843-47.  No  truer  picture  of  the  simple 
fisher  folk  of  Newfoundland  was  ever  produced — even  to 
a  delicate  discrimination  of  dialects.  Mr.  Lowell's  reputa 
tion  was  not  ill  sustained  by  his  later  though  less  known 
books,  "Antony  Brade"  (1874)  and  "A  Story  or  Two 
from  an  Old  Dutch  Town"  (1878),  which  dealt  with  the 
quaint  life  in  the  Dutch  villages  of  eastern  New  York. 

Mrs.  Harriet  Prescott  Spofford. — Mrs.  Harriet  Prescott 
SpofFord  (born  in  1835),  a  native  of  Maine  who  has  passed 
most  of  her  life  in  Massachusetts,  made  her  reputation  with 
a  short  story  of  Parisian  life,  "In  a  Cellar,"  in  The  Atlantic 
in  1859.  In  "Sir  Rohan's  Ghost"  (1859),  "The  Amber 
Gods  "  (in  The  Atlantic,  1 860) ,  which  gave  her  a  considerable 
reputation,  " Azarian,"  (1864),  and  "A  Thief  in  the  Night" 
(1872),  she  produced  sombre  works  vividly  imaginative 
and  intense  in  feeling.  She  was  among  the  first  to  work 
the  mine  of  ghostly  romance.  Her  stories  have  never  been 
very  popular;  her  fondness  for  the  sensuous  and  the 
splendid  repels  many  readers.  Yet  for  sheer  and  over- 


1 76  The  Nineteenth  Century 

whelming  intensity  and  for  complete  success  in  producing 
the  effect  sought,  "A  Thief  in  the  Night"  must  be  given 
a  high  place  as  a  work  of  art. 

Mrs.  Miriam  Coles  Harris. — Mrs.  Miriam  Coles  Harris 
(born  in  1834),  who  has  spent  most  of  her  life  in  and  near 
New  York  City,  wrote  a  number  of  stories  popular  in  their 
day,  some  of  them  being  still  read.  "Rutledge"  (1860) 
and  "The  Sutherlands"  (1862)  were  widely  circulated. 
Her  later  stories  include  "A  Perfect  Adonis"  (1875), 
"Phoebe"  (1884),  "Missy"  (1885),  and  " An  Utter  Failure " 
(1890). 

Theodore  Winthrop. — Theodore  Winthrop  (1828-61)  de 
serves  more  than  passing  mention,  not  so  much  for  what  he 
actually  accomplished  as  for  what  his  brief  life  gave  promise 
of  doing.  Born  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  a  descendant 
of  Governor  John  Winthrop  of  Connecticut  and  at  twenty 
a  graduate  of  Yale,  he  travelled  much  abroad,  went  to 
Panama  in  the  employment  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship 
Company,  and  afterward  sojourned  in  California  and 
Oregon,  visiting  also  the  island  of  Vancouver  and  some 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  stations.  He  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1855,  but  became  more  fond  of  politics 
and  literature  than  of  law.  For  several  years,  he  worked  on 
his  novels;  but  though  one  was  accepted  for  publication, 
none  appeared  in  his  lifetime.  At  the  opening  of  the  war 
he  went  to  the  front  with  the  Seventh  New  York  Regiment, 
and  fell,  bravely  fighting,  at  Great  Bethel.  His  descrip 
tions  of  his  march  to  Washington,  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly, 
had  attracted  much  attention,  and  after  his  death  his 
novels  appeared  in  rapid  succession,  "Cecil  Dreeme"  in 
1861  and  "John  Brent"  and  "Edwin  Brothertoft"  in 
1862.  The  first  is  a  gruesome  tale  of  life  in  New  York,  full 
of  broad  sweep  and  passion,  immature  but  not  devoid  of 
power.  "John  Brent,"  the  best  of  his  stories,  is  an  imagina- 


The  Novelists  177 

tive  tale  into  which  he  wove  a  record  of  his  Western  ex 
periences;  it  "had  the  merit,  in  its  day  especially,  of 
delineating  Western  scenes  and  characters  with  sympathy 
and  skill,  at  a  time  when  the  West  was  almost  virgin  soil 
to  literature."  "Edwin  Brothertoft"  is  a  melodramatic 
story  of  the  American  Revolution,  at  times  crude  in  ex 
pression,  but  strong  in  plot  and  in  its  play  of  light  and 
shade.  Had  Winthrop  lived,  our  literature  beyond  ques 
tion  would  have  been  far  richer.  He  comprehended  as 
did  few  others  the  deep  throbbing  life  of  America,  not 
only  in  its  externals  but  in  its  less  obvious  features;  and 
abating  his  youthful  "breeziness,"  he  would  doubtless 
have  reproduced  some  parts  of  that  life  on  enduring 
canvas. 

Fitz-James  O'Brien. — Another  brilliant  writer  whose 
career  was  cut  short  by  the  war  was  Fitz-James  O'Brien 
(1828-62),  a  native  of  County  Limerick,  Ireland.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin;  and  after  spending 
his  inheritance  of  ^8,000  in  London,  he  came  to  America 
in  1852  and  from  that  time  on  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
In  New  York  he  became  a  prominent  figure  among  the 
Bohemian  set  and  won  distinguished  social  and  literary 
success.  Besides  much  clever  verse,  he  wrote  for  the 
magazines  some  marvellously  ingenious  tales,  for  example 
"The  Diamond  Lens,"  "The  Wondersmith,"  "The  Golden 
Ingot,"  and  "Mother  of  Pearl."  The  reader  is  occasionally 
reminded  of  Poe  and  Hawthorne,  but  is  more  often  led 
to  wonder  why  O'Brien  has  so  long  lain  in  neglect;  for 
some  of  his  stories  are  powerful  in  a  high  degree.  Like 
Winthrop,  O'Brien  in  1861  became  a  soldier  in  the  Seventh 
New  York  Regiment  and  went  to  the  front.  On  February 
26,  1862  he  was  severely  wounded  in  a  skirmish,  and  in 
April  he  died.  Nearly  twenty  years  later,  his  friend 
William  Winter  edited  "The  Poems  and  Stories  of  Fitz- 
James  O'Brien"  (1881). 


178  The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  Civil  War. — It  is  not  surprising  that  the  Civil 
War  partially,  at  least,  dried  up  the  springs  of  literature 
and  art  in  America.  It  was  an  epoch  of  concentration, 
of  action ;  men  had  little  time  for  reading  novels  or  writing 
them ;  the  newspaper  any  day  might  chronicle  as  sublimely 
heroic  or  as  pathetic  events  as  could  be  found  in  fiction. 
Comparatively  few  novels  of  distinction  were  written, 
therefore,  during  the  war  and  the  two  or  three  years 
following  it,  the  Reconstruction  period.  Some  worthy 
novels  which  appeared  in  those  years,  for  example  Mrs. 
Stoddard's  "  Morgesons,"  failed  of  an  appreciative  audience. 

The  close  of  the  war  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new 
era  in  American  fiction.  As  Mr.  Morse  points  out,  people 
no  longer  cared  for  stories  about  the  Indians  and  about 
the  Revolution.  The  Indians  had  retreated  into  that  world 
of  romance  with  which  the  modern  world,  ignorant  of 
"Nick  of  the  Woods,"  associates  them;  the  Revolution  was 
ancient  history  by  the  side  of  the  more  terrible  conflict 
just  ended,  and  a  quarter  of  a  century  must  elapse  be 
fore  the  earlier  war  would  make  a  background  for  fiction. 
Romance,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  had  already  begun  to 
lose  favour,  must  now  yield  to  realism;  there  must  be 
pictures  of  life  at  home,  in  the  market-place,  in  the  fields, 
in  the  teeming  cities;  there  must  be  greater  skill  in  hand 
ling  the  narrative  so  as  to  make  it  a  transcript  from  daily 
life.  The  lover  of  romance  will  doubtless  deplore  this 
tendency;  but  it  was  inevitable,  and  it  has  dictated  the 
path  of  fiction  almost  to  the  present  day. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. — The  many-sided  activity  of 
Dr.  Holmes  extended  to  the  writing  of  three  novels — 
"medicated  novels"  they  have  been  called,  but  the  term 
does  not  apply  to  all  equally  well.  Certainly  they  all 
belong  to  the  large  and  increasing  group  of  "problem 
novels."  The  first,  "Elsie  Venner :  a  Romance  of  Destiny  " 
(1861),  published  when  the  author  had  passed  the  half- 


The  Novelists  179 

century  mark,  made  its  first  appearance  as  "The  Pro 
fessor's  Story"  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly.  The  mother  of 
Elsie  Venner,  a  short  time  before  giving  birth  to  her 
child,  was  fatally  bitten  by  a  crotalus  or  rattlesnake,  and 
from  birth  the  child  is  partially  endowed  with  a  serpent 
nature,  which  enables  her  to  exercise  a  peculiar  influence 
over  those  with  whom  she  is  brought  into  contact,  es 
pecially  the  sensitive  schoolmistress  Helen  Darley.  "The 
real  aim  of  the  story,"  says  Dr.  Holmes  himself,  "was  to 
test  the  doctrine  of  '  original  sin '  and  human  responsibility 
for  the  disordered  volition  coming  under  that  technical 
denomination.  Was  Elsie  Venner,  poisoned  by  the  venom 
of  a  crotalus  before  she  was  born,  morally  responsible 
for  the  'volitional'  aberrations  which,  translated  into  acts, 
become  what  is  known  as  sin,  and,  it  may  be,  what  is 
punished  as  crime?  If,  on  presentation  of  the  evidence, 
she  becomes  by  the  verdict  of  the  human  conscience  a 
proper  object  of  divine  pity  and  not  of  divine  wrath,  as  a 
subject  of  moral  poisoning,  wherein  lies  the  difference 
between  her  position  at  the  bar  of  judgment,  human  or 
divine,  and  that  of  the  unfortunate  victim  who  received  a 
moral  poison  from  a  remote  ancestor  before  he  drew  his 
first  breath?"  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  what  the  author 
intended  was  nothing  less  than  an  onslaught  upon  one  of 
the  great  fundamental  dogmas  of  orthodox  theology. 
Fifty  years  ago,  this  was  a  bold  undertaking  indeed.  The 
intensely  tragic  motive  of  the  novel  is  relieved  by  some 
chapters  of  pure  comedy,  in  which  figure  the  mean,  calcu 
lating,  money-making  Silas  Peckham,  the  vulgar  splurging 
Sprowles,  and  a  varied  group  of  other  minor  characters. 
"The  Guardian  Angel"  (1867)  forms  a  natural  sequel  to 
"Elsie  Venner";  it  deals  with  some  of  the  problems  of 
heredity,  attempting  "to  show  the  successive  evolution  of 
some  inherited  qualities  in  the  character  of  Myrtle  Hazard, " 
the  heroine.  Less  tragic  than  the  earlier  tale,  "The  Guar 
dian  Angel"  is  more  pleasant  to  read,  and  a  more  artistic 


180  The  Nineteenth  Century 

creation.  An  interesting  plot  is  skilfully  worked  out  and 
the  characterisation  is  subtle  and  true.  In  his  third  novel, 
"A  Mortal  Antipathy"  (1885),  Dr.  Holmes  at  seventy-six 
plainly  showed  that  he  had  passed  his  creative  period.  He 
yielded,  to  a  much  greater  degree  than  in  the  other  stories, 
to  the  rambling  propensity  which,  charming  and  natural 
enough  in  "The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,"  seriously 
mars  the  continuity  of  a  novel  in  which  plot-interest  is 
intended  to  figure.  In  this  the  author  deals  with  the 
influence  on  a  man's  after-life  of  an  antipathy  (toward 
womankind)  arising  from  a  severe  shock  received  in  early 
childhood — an  antipathy  which  is  happily  removed  when 
the  hero,  helpless  on  a  sick-bed  in  a  burning  heuse,  is  borne 
out  by  a  brave  and  athletic  girl.  In  spite  of  its  "medi 
cated"  character,  the  story  is  full  of  delightful  gossip, 
amusing  descriptions  and  characterisation,  and  thoughtful 
speculation  over  miscellaneous  matters  connected  with  the 
healing  art.  If,  as  some  contend,  Dr.  Holmes  has  in  these 
books  emphasised  the  moral  issue  at  the  expense  of  artistic 
perfection,  they  still  have  great  value  as  records  of  per 
sonality.  In  Mr.  Noble's  words,  the  author  "is  a  man 
whose  temperament  makes  him  intensely  interested  in 
human  nature,  and  whose  bent  of  mind  gives  him  a  special 
interest  in  any  development  of  human  nature  which,  by 
exhibiting  exceptional  possibilities  or  limitations,  casts 
some  strange  side-light  upon  its  more  ordinary  and  normal 
conditions." 

Mrs.  Elizabeth  Barstow  Stoddard. — Mrs.  Elizabeth  Bar- 
stow  Stoddard  (1823-1902),  wife  of  the  poet  Richard  Henry 
Stoddard,  wrote  three  novels  remarkable  in  their  day, 
" The  Morgesons "  (1862),  "Two  Men"  (1865),  and  "Temple 
House"  (1867),  which  found  few  readers  in  their  time  and 
are  now  almost  forgotten,  but  which  evinced  careful  obser 
vation  of  life  and  customs,  and  decided  if  not  eccentric 
individuality.  Republished  in  1888  and  again  in  1901, 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 

Novelists  181 

"The  Morgesons"  was  praised  by  such  judicious  critics 
as  Mr.  Stedman,  Mr.  Julian  Hawthorne,  and  Professor 
Beers  (who  declared  he  had  read  it  four  times) ;  but  it 
again  failed  of  popular  favour;  it  had  become  old-fashioned. 

"Edmund,  Kirke. — Under  this  pen  name,  James  Roberts 
Gilmore  (1822-1903)  was  for  many  years  a  well  known 
writer.  In  1857  he  retired  from  business  with  a  com 
petency,  and  thereafter  devoted  himself  mainly  (except 
1873—83)  to  literature.  His  earlier  novels,  "Among  the 
Pines"  (1862),  "My  Southern  Friends"  (1862),  "Among 
the  Guerillas"  (1863),  "Down  in  Tennessee"  (1863), 
"Adrift  in  Dixie"  (1863),  and  "On  the  Border"  (1864), 
were  concerned  with  the  Southern  life  with  which  he  be 
came  acquainted  in  war-time.  In  later  life,  he  wrote  "The 
Last  of  the  Thorndikes"  (1889)  and  "A  Mountain- White 
Heroine"  (1889).  His  earlier  stories  were  popular  and 
did  much  to  acquaint  readers  with  slavery. 

Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. — Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  (1836- 
1907)  began  his  career  as  a  novelist  in  1862  with  the  pub 
lication  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly  (June)  of  a  little  romance, 
"Pere  Antoine's  Date  Palm,"  which  secured  sympathetic 
recognition  from  Hawthorne.  In  the  same  year,  he  also 
published  "  Out  of  His  Head,  a  Romance  in  Prose,"  a 
collection  of  six  short  stories;  but  these  remained  his  sole 
efforts  in  fiction  until  1869,  when  he  published  his  largely 
autobiographical  "  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy."  The  hero  of  this 
little  idyl  of  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  Tom  Bailey, 
who  is  after  all  "  not  a  very  bad  boy,"  has  become  a  classic 
character  in  the  fiction  of  boyhood.  "  Marjorie  Daw,  and 
Other  Stories"  (1873)  are  ingenious  tales,  in  the  first  of 
which  a  surprising  hoax  is  managed  with  consummate 
skill.  "  Prudence  Palfrey"  (1874)  is  an  old-fashioned  novel 
of  incident  in  which  a  well-nigh  impossible  plot  is  made 
plausible.  "The  Queen  of  Sheba"  (1877)  is  perhaps  the 


1 82  The  Nineteenth  Century 

most  skilfully  done  of  all  his  stories;  the  action  takes 
place  in  New  Hampshire  and  Switzerland,  and  the  story 
is  full  of  humour.  "The  Stillwater  Tragedy"  (1880)  is  a 
realistic  portrayal  of  life  in  a  New  England  manufacturing 
village,  the  motif  being  the  detection  of  a  murderer,  and 
the  sombreness  of  the  situation  being  relieved  by  a  love 
story.  "Two  Bites  at  a  Cherry,  and  Other  Tales,"  subtle, 
amusing,  ingenious,  appeared  in  1893.  Probably  most  of 
us  will  agree  with  Mr.  Howells  when  he  says  that  Aldrich 
was  a  worker  in  the  novel  with  the  instinct  of  a  romancer, 
and  was  at  his  best  in  the  romantic  parts  of  his  stories. 
Of  his  prose  works  his  short  stories  will  probably  endure 
longest. 

Mrs.  Adeline  D.  T.  Whitney.— Mrs.  Adeline  D.  T.  Whit 
ney  (born  in  1824),  a  native  of  Boston  and  sister  of  the 
eccentric  George  Francis  Train,  wrote  a  number  of  stories 
for  young  people,  beginning  with  "Boys  at  Chequasset" 
(1862)  and  "Faith  Gartney's  Girlhood"  (1863)  and  in 
cluding  also  "The  Gayworthys"  (1865),  which  ranks 
among  the  best  of  New  England  novels,  "  A  Summer  in 
Leslie  Goldthwaite's  Life"  (1866),  "Patience  Strong's 
Outings"  (1868),  "Hitherto"  (1869),  "We  Girls"  (1870), 
"Bonnyborough"  (1885),  and  "Ascutney  Street"  (1888). 
To  some  critics  the  didactic  tone  of  her  stories  has  seemed 
so  prominent  as  to  impair  their  artistic  value;  others,  like 
Mrs.  Stowe,  defend  her  from  the  charge  of  being  "  preachy." 
A  vein  of  mysticism  runs  through  her  stories.  Her  style 
is  effective  and  her  creations  are  real  and  lifelike. 

Bayard  Taylor. — The  writing  of  novels  did  not  play 
a  great  part  in  the  life  of  Bayard  Taylor,  who  felt  him 
self  to  be  first  of  all  a  poet;  but  his  four  novels  are  not 
without  interest.  Taylor  had  already  tried  his  hand  at 
writing  stories  for  The  Atlantic  Monthly  when  he  began  in 
1 86 1  the  writing  of  a  novel.  Before  he  left  America  for 


The  Novelists  183 

Russia  he  had  written  seven  chapters.  He  finished  the 
book  in  St.  Petersburg  and  published  it  in  1863  under 
the  title  of  "  Hannah  Thurston,  a  Story  of  American  Life." 
Although  the  scene  is  nominally  laid  in  central  New  York, 
the  life  is  essentially  that  of  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania. 
The  plot  is  similar  to  that  of  Tennyson's  "Princess."  It 
is,  however,  of  secondary  importance;  the  author's  main 
purpose  apparently  was  to  satirise  the  more  or  less  super 
ficial  reforms  of  the  time — abolition,  total  abstinence, 
spiritualism,  vegetarianism,  and  the  like.  The  homely 
and  commonplace  village  life  of  his  time  Taylor  described 
vividly  and  truthfully;  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  his 
characters,  amusing  as  many  of  them  are,  are  distinctly  in 
dividualised.  Even  so,  the  book  was  received  with  favour. 
It  was  promptly  translated  into  German,  Swedish,  and 
Russian.  Its  success  encouraged  Taylor  to  further  efforts. 
"John  Godfrey's  Fortunes,  Related  by  Himself"  appeared 
late  in  1864.  This  is  a  story  of  life  in  Pennsylvania  and 
in  New  York  City.  A  good  plot  is  worked  out,  and  some 
of  the  characters  are  interesting,  though  for  the  most  part 
they  are  too  obviously  good  or  bad.  John  Godfrey  in  a 
sense  was  Taylor  himself,  but  the  book  can  hardly  be 
called  an  autobiography.  In  1866  appeared  "The  Story 
of  Kennett,"  in  some  respects  the  best  of  Taylor's  novels. 
For  it  he  drew  largely  upon  his  memories  of  Chester 
County,  and  most  of  the  characters  were  drawn  from  life. 
The  scene  at  the  funeral  of  Abiah  Barton,  where  the  hero 
discovers  his  worthless  and  cowardly  father,  has  been 
sharply  censured;  but  Taylor  contended  that,  because  of 
the  vein  of  superstition  in  Mary  Potter,  it  was  the  most 
justifiable  chapter  in  the  book.  "Joseph  and  His  Friend: 
a  Story  of  Pennsylvania,"  the  last  of  Taylor's  novels,  ap 
peared  serially  in  The  Atlantic,  and  was  published  in 
book  form  in  1870.  It  is  a  disagreeable  story  of  duplicity, 
in  Bismarck's  view  of  which  many  have  shared,  that  the 
villain  gets  off  too  easily.  To  the  above  should  be  added 


1 84  The  Nineteenth  Century 

a  volume  of  shorter  stories  issued  under  the  title  of  "  Beauty 
and  the  Beast."  In  general,  Taylor's  novels  exhibit  skil 
ful  workmanship  and  sympathetic  and  often  vivid  delinea 
tions  of  character. 

Louisa  May  A Icott.— Louisa  May  Alcott  (1832-88), 
daughter  of  Amos  Bronson  Alcott,  became  well  known  as 
a  writer  of  wholesome  fiction,  especially  for  young  readers. 
She  began  life  as  a  teacher  and  during  the  Civil  War  was 
an  army  nurse.  "Moods"  (1864),  her  first  novel,  was 
widely  read,  and  contains  passages  of  strength.  "  Little 
Women"  (1868-69),  written  as  a  girls'  book,  remains  her 
best.  A  kind  o_f  sequel  to  it  was  "Little  Men;  Life  at 
Plumfield  with  Jo's  Boys"  (1871),  followed  in  its  turn 
by  "Jo's  Boys  and  How.  They  Turned  Out"  (1886). 
Other  similar  stories  were  "  An  Old-Fashioned  Girl"  (1870), 
"Work,  a  Story  of  Experience"  (1873),  partly  autobio 
graphical,  "Eight  Cousins"  (1875)  and  its  sequel,  "Rose 
in  Bloom"  (1876),  and  "A  Modern  Mephistopheles  "  (1877), 
a  disagreeable  but  vigorous  and  imaginative  study  of  moral 
deterioration.  Her  stories  continue  to  be  popular  with 
the  young,  though  the  newer  juvenile  fiction  will  in  time 
supersede  them. 

Richard  Malcolm  Johnston. — Richard  Malcolm  Johnston 
(1822-98)  was  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  Southern 
writers  of  his  time.  The  son  of  a  Georgia  planter  and 
Baptist  clergyman,  he  in  time  became  a  Roman  Catholic. 
Graduating  from  Mercer  University,  Georgia,  in  1841,  he 
practised  law  for  some  years,  in  1857  declining  a  judgeship 
to  become  professor  of  belles-lettres  in  the  University  of 
Georgia.  From  1861  till  1882,  he  was  engaged  in  con 
ducting  a  boys'  boarding-school,  first  at  Sparta,  Georgia, 
then  near  Baltimore.  In  1864  he  published,  as  "Georgia 
Sketches,"  four  stories  of  life  in  Georgia.  To  these,  others 
were  added  in  1874  under  the  title  of  "  Dukesborough 


The  Novelists  185 

Tales,"  his  best  book.  He  afterward  wrote  "Old  Mark 
Langston"  (1884),  "Mr.  Absalom  Billingslea  and  Other 
Georgia  Folk"  (1888),  "  Ogeechee  Cr oss- Firings "  (1889), 
"The  Primes  and  Their  Neighbours"  (1891),  "Mr.  Billy 
Downs  and  His  Likes"  (1892),  "Mr.  Fortner's  Marital 
Claims,  and  Other  Stories"  (1892),  "Widow  Guthrie" 
(1893),  "Little  Ike  Templin,  and  Other  Stories"  (1894), 
"  Old  Times  in  Middle  Georgia"  (1897),  an(i  "  Pearce  Amer- 
son's  Will"  (1898).  In  all  he  published  more  than  eighty 
stories.  He  was  not  a  master  of  plot,  and  the  structure  of 
his  tales  is  loose  and  faulty  in  sequence;  but  his  characters 
have  the  magic  touch  of  reality,  and  his  descriptions  of 
ante-bellum  Georgia  days  cannot  be  neglected. 

William  Mumford  Baker. — William  Mumford  Baker 
(1825-83),  a  Princeton  graduate  and  Presbyterian  clergy 
man,  was  once  popular  but  is  now  little  read.  From  1850 
till  1865  he  was- minister  of  a  church  in  Austin,  Texas,  where 
he  had  many  of  the  experiences  utilised  in  his  stories.  His 
most  important  fiction  was  "  Inside,  a  Chronicle  of  Seces 
sion,"  which  was  written  secretly  during  the  war,  ran  as  a 
serial  in  Harper's  Weekly,  and  appeared  in  book  form  in 
1866;  it  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  Southern  life  and  feeling. 
Some  of  his  later  books  were  "  Oak  Mot"  (1868),  "The  New 
Timothy"  (1870),  "  Mose  Evans"  (1874),  "Carter  Quarter- 
man"  (1876),  "A  Year  Worth  Living"  (1878),  "Colonel 
Dunwoodie"  (1878),  "His  Majesty  Myself"  (1879),  and 
"Blessed  Saint  Certainty"  (1881).  While  not  striking 
their  roots  very  deeply  into  life  and  character,  his  books 
are  marked  by  sincerity  and  intense  earnestness. 

5.  Weir  Mitchell.— Dr.  Silas  Weir  Mitchell  (born  in 
1830)  is  a  distinguished  physician  of  many-sided  fame. 
A  native  of  Virginia,  he  studied  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Jefferson  Medical  College,  from 
which  he  was  graduated  in  1850.  He  began  writing  fiction 


i86  The  Nineteenth  Century 

during  the  Civil  War,  and  in  July,  1866,  contributed  to 
The  Atlantic  a  remarkable  story,  "The  Case  of  George 
Dedlow."  But  it  was  not  until  about  1880  that  he  began 
to  devote  himself  more  seriously  to  literature.  He  has 
written  "  Hephzibah  Guinness"  (1880),  three  stories  of 
Quaker  life  in  Philadelphia;  "In  War  Time"  (1885); 
"Roland  Blake"  (1886),  the  earlier  part  of  which  deals 
with  the  Civil  War;  "Far  in  the  Forest"  (1889),  a  story 
of  character  influence,  the  scene  of  which  takes  place  in 
the  forest  of  Pennsylvania  before  the  Revolutionary  War; 
"Hugh  Wynne,  Free  Quaker"  (1897),  a  story  of  Phila 
delphia  during  the  War  of  Independence,  which  ranks 
among  the  few  great  American  novels;  "The  Adventures 
of  Francois"  (1898),  a  romance  of  the  French  Revolution, 
the  hero  being  a  light-hearted  little  waif  who  has  some 
strange  adventures;  "The  Autobiography  of  a  Quack" 
(1900),  a  study  of  the  mind  of  a  professional  medical 
knave;  "  Constance  Trescot"  (1905),  a  study  of  an  unusual 
character,  skilfully  handled,  the  scene  being  Paris  in  the 
sixties;  and  "A  Diplomatic  Adventure"  (1906).  Dr. 
Mitchell's  interest  in  problems  of  abnormal  psychology  has 
led  him  to  treat  some  themes  which  in  the  hands  of  any 
but  a  born  story-teller  would  have  resulted  in  merely  sen 
sational  novels.  His  stories  all  show  keen  powers  of 
analysis  and  character-drawing  and  a  kindly  and  whole 
some  optimism. 

Beecher  and  Higginson. — Henry  Ward  Beecher  (1813- 
87),  amid  the  many  activities  of  a  busy  clerical  and  jour 
nalistic  life,  found  time  to  write  one  novel,  "  Norwood,  or 
Village  Life  in  New  England"  (1867),  in  which  occur 
descriptive  and  narrative  passages  rich  in  insight  and 
humour.  There  is  only  a  slight  plot;  the  movement  is 
leisurely;  we  are  chiefly  interested  in  the  characters,  who 
include  the  usual  personages  to  be  found  in  a  village  and 
some  curious  and  amusing  people  as  well.  The  book  is 


The  Novelists  187 

partly  autobiographical,  with  a  vein  of  romance  running 
through  it.  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson  (born  in  1823) 
is  chiefly  known  as  an  essayist,  but  wrote  one  capital  story, 
"Malbone,  an  Oldport  Romance"  (1869),  which  deserves 
wider  reading  as  a  subtle  study  of  temperament;  the 
scene  is  obviously  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  It  "is  largely 
a  transcript  from  actual  life,  the  chief  character  being 
drawn  from  the  same  friend  of  Higginson,  William  Hurl- 
bert,  who  figures  as  Densdreth  in  Winthrop's  'Cecil 
Dreeme.'"1  In  "Madame  Delia's  Expectations"  (The 
Atlantic,  January,  1871,  reprinted  in  "Oldport  Days," 
1873),  Colonel  Higginson  showed  that  he  could  tell  a 
short  story  well. 

Mark  Twain. — The  literary  productions  of  Mr.  Clemens 
will  be  recorded  elsewhere;  here  a  few  words  may  be  said 
of  his  place  as  a  writer  of  fiction.  In  technique,  it  cannot 
be  maintained  that  he  stands  high;  his  narrative  wanders 
whither  it  listeth,  blameless  of  compact  construction  or 
climax;  his  style  is  not  free  from  faults.  Yet  in  spite  of 
these  defects  his  name  has  become  "a  household  word  in 
all  places  where  the  English  language  is  spoken,  and  in 
many  where  it  is  not."  He  has  created  two  characters — 
Tom  Sawyer  and  Huckleberry  Finn — who  will  live  long 
as  humorously  conceived  but  true  American  boys.  Pudd'n- 
head  Wilson  and  the  Connecticut  Yankee  may  fade  into 
oblivion,  but  it  seems  unlikely  that  the  heroes  of  Mark 
Twain's  most  typical  books  will  soon  be  allowed  to  with 
draw  from  our  group  of  favourites.  Moreover,  Mr.  Clem 
ens  has  enshrined  the  Mississippi  River  of  his  youth  in  a 
kind  of  homely,  virile  prose-poetry;  he  has  recorded,  in 
narrative  which  Mr.  Thompson  rightly  calls  "  firm  and 
vigorous,"  the  impression  which  the  great  river  made  upon 
his  youthful  mind.  Nowhere  else  shall  we  find  such 
descriptions  of  Mississippi  River  life  in  the  fifties.  Artisti- 

1  See  Higginson's  "Cheerful  Yesterdays,"  pp.  107—111. 


1 88  The  Nineteenth  Century 

cally  defective  his  work  is  indeed ;  but  to  it  cannot  be  denied 
the  qualities  of  eloquence,  naturalness,  and  sincerity.  The 
work,  like  the  man,  is  genuine. 

Bret  Harte. — The  stirring,  primitive,  lawless  life  of 
early  California  found  its  painter  in  Francis  Bret  Harte, 
who  early  dropped  his  first  name  from  his  literary  signa 
ture.  He  was  a  native  of  Albany,  New  York  (1839),  his  an 
cestors  being  English,  German,  and  Hebrew.  His  father, 
a  teacher  of  Greek,  died  when  the  son  was  but  a  child. 
Receiving  only  a  common-school  education,  Harte  went 
with  his  family  in  1854  to  California,  which  for  five  years 
had  been  the  Mecca  of  the  gold-hunter  and  the  gambler. 
At  first  he  tried  teaching  and  mining,  gaining  from  either 
business  little  more  than  experience,  of  which  he  was  to 
make  good  use  in  later  years.  In  1857  he  became  a 
compositor  for  the  San  Francisco  Golden  Era.  Some  of 
his  unsigned  sketches  attracted  the  notice  of  the  editor, 
who  ordered  him  to  exchange  his  composing-stick  for  a 
writer's  desk  in  the  office.  He  later  joined  the  staff  of 
The  Califorman,  to  which  he  contributed  the  clever  parodies 
on  contemporary  writers  of  fiction  later  published  (1867) 
as  "Condensed  Novels."  From  1864  till  1870,  he  was 
secretary  of  the  United  States  Branch  Mint ;  during  this 
time  he  wrote  much  of  his  best  poetry.  When  The  Over 
land  Monthly  was  projected  in  1868,  no  other  name  than 
Harte's  was  considered  for  the  editorship.  Mr.  Noah 
Brooks  has  told  how  he  and  Harte  agreed  to  write  each 
a  short  story  for  the  first  number,  and  how  Harte  with 
his  usual  fastidiousness  about  words  was  unable  to  finish 
his  in  time.  When  it  did  appear,  however,  "The  Luck  of 
Roaring  Camp"  and  the  story  which  followed  it,  "The 
Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat,"  made  Harte  famous;  the  latter 
story  is  generally  considered  the  most  perfect  of  his  works. 
In  1870,  Mr.  Harte  was  appointed  professor  of  recent 
literature  in  the  University  of  California;  but  in  the  fol- 


The  Novelists  189 

lowing  year  he  resigned  this  post,  settled  in  New  York, 
and  devoted  himself  to  lecturing  and  to  writing,  especially 
for  The  Atlantic  Monthly.  In  1878,  he  was  appointed 
United  States  consul  at  Crefeld,  Germany;  from  1880  till 
1885  he  held  a  similar  post  at  Glasgow.  From  1885  until 
his  death,  in  1902,  Harte  lived  in  London,  busily  engaged 
in  literary  work.  His  best-known  works  are  "  Mrs.  Skagg's 
Husbands"  (1872),  " Tales  of  the  Argonauts,  and  Other 
Stories"  (1875),  "Gabriel  Conroy,"  .his  only  long  novel 
(1876),  "Drift  from  Two  Shores"  (1878),  "The  Twins  of 
Table  Mountain"  (1879),  "Flip;  and  Found  at  Blazing 
Star"  (1882),  "  In  the  Carquinez  Woods"  (1883),  effectively 
expressing  the  wonder  and  mystery  of  the  forest,  "  On  the 
Frontier"  (1884),  "Maruja"  (1885),  a  melodramatic  novel, 
"Snow-Bound  at  Eagle's"  (1886),  "A  Millionaire  of  Rough 
and  Ready"  (1887),  "The  Crusade  of  the  Excelsior"  (1887), 
"A  Phyllis  of  the  Sierras"  (1888),  "The  Argonauts  of 
North  Liberty"  (1888),  "A  Sappho  of  Green  Springs" 
(1891),  "Colonel  Starbottle's  Client  and  Some  Other 
People"  (1892),  "Sally  Dows"  (1893),  "A  Prote'ge'e  of 
Jack  Hamlin's"  (1894),  "The  Three  Partners"  (1897), 
"Under  the  Redwoods"  (1901).  Throughout  his  life,  it 
will  be  seen,  he  continued  to  write  of  the  old  California 
days,  of  a  regime  which  has  long  since  passed  away,  but 
which  he  immortalised. 

It  was  Harte's  rare  privilege  to  be  the  first  to  work 
in  a  mine  which  has  yielded  rich  ores  to  many  since  his 
day;  to  write  of  an  elemental,  half-savage  life  in  which 
convention  was  all  but  unknown,  and  the  background  of 
which  was  the  rugged  simplicity  and  majesty  of  the 
Sierras.  "His  actual  discovery,"  says  Mr.  Logan,  "was 
Nature  in  an  aspect  always  grand,  sometimes  awful,  at  a 
moment  when  her  primeval  solitude  was  invaded  by  a  host 
that  had  cast  human  relationships  behind,  and  came 
surging  towards  an  unknown  land,  all  under  the  sway  of 
a  devouring  passion— the  thirst  for  gold,"  He  had  his 


190  The  Nineteenth  Century 

own  way  (possibly  influenced  by  Dickens)  of  presenting 
these  rough  scenes.  He  did  not  idealise  this  primitive 
life;  he  did  not  as  a  rule  weave  it  into  romance  (even  Mr. 
Boyesen  cites  only  "  Gabriel  Conroy  "  as  a  romantic  novel) ; 
he  did  not  seek  to  interpret  it  or  to  make  it  symbolise 
religious  or  moral  ideas.  To  him  it  was  a  very  real  world; 
and  with  true  eye  and  sure  touch  he  sought  to  portray  it 
impartially,  as  it  was;  the  reader  might  draw  his  own 
moral — if  he  happened  to  need  one.  It  is  this  unerring 
instinct  of  the  artist  that  places  Harte  in  the  ranks  of  the 
greater  story-tellers. 

His  powers,  however,  had  their  limitations.  He  found 
himself  unable  to  sustain  interest  in  a  long  story.  "  Gabriel 
Conroy,"  though  it  contains  interesting  scenes  and  some 
of  his  best  characters,  is  quite  without  unity — a  bundle  of 
impressions  in  which  the  same  characters  are  presented 
hardly  twice  alike.  He  has  been  criticised,  too,  for  en 
dowing  otherwise  worthless  characters  with  some  marked 
virtue;  but  perhaps  it  is  only  fair  to  say,  with  Mr.  Logan, 
that  "  the  virtue  is  generally  a  primitive  one,  and  is  rarely 
either  inconsistent  or  improbable." 

In  his  later  years,  Harte  did  little  to  increase  his  re 
putation.  The  same  characters,  the  same  types,  appear 
again  and  again;  but  there  is  no  added  source  of  interest, 
no  maturer  observation  of  men  and  manners.  His  re 
putation  continues  to  rest  on  the  score  of  early  tales,  terse 
and  full  of  energy,  with  which  he  dazzled  and  delighted 
the  reading  public  of  the  later  sixties  and  the  seventies. 

Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps  Ward. — It  is  of  course  a  far 
cry  from  Harte  to  Mrs.  Phelps  Ward,  who  came  into  notice 
in  the  East  in  the  same  year  in  which  The  Overland  was 
started.  Mrs.  Ward  was  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts, 
and  was  the  daughter  of  Professor  Austin  Phelps  of  An 
dover  Theological  Seminary.  In  1888  she  was  married 
to  the  Rev.  Herbert  D,  Ward.  She  is  the  author  of  a 


The  Novelists  191 

long  list  of  kindly  and  readable  stories,  none  of  which 
quite  attains  to  distinction  in  point  of  quality,  but  several 
of  which  have  been  popular  and  influential.  Beginning 
with  "The  Gates  Ajar"  (1868),  half  novel,  half  threnody, 
she  continued  with  "The  Silent  Partner"  (1870),  "The 
Story  of  Avis"  (1877),  a  favourite  with  many,  "An  Old 
Maid's  Paradise**  (1879)  and  its  sequel  "Burglars  in  Para 
dise"  (1886),  "Friends,  a  Duet"  (1881),  "Doctor  Zay" 
(1882),  "Beyond  the  Gates"  (1883),  which  elaborates  the 
idea  of  her  first  story,  "A  Singular  Life"  (1894),  her  best 
book,  and  "The  Man  in  the  Case"  (1906).  Her  plots, 
sometimes  conventional,  are  never  complicated  and  are 
skilfully  managed;  and  her  women  characters  are  gener 
ally  true  to  life.  Of  her  men,  for  example  Emanuel 
Bayard,  so  much  cannot  be  said.  She  collaborated  with 
her  husband  in  writing  two  or  three  novels  which  were 
not  very  successful. 

Constance  Fenimore  Woolson. — A  grandniece  of  Feni- 
more  Cooper,  Miss  Woolson  (1848-94)  has  taken  a  place 
among  women  novelists  scarcely  less  honourable  than 
that  held  by  her  kinsman  among  American  novelists  in 
general.  Born  at  Claremont,  New  Hampshire,  she  was 
educated  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  at  a  French  school  in  New 
York  City.  After  her  father's  death  in  1869,  she  spent  her 
summers  at  Cooperstown,  New  York,  or  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  her  winters  in  the  South.  Her  first  literary  effort,  "  The 
Happy  Valley"  (Harper's,  July,  1870)  met  with  immediate 
approval.  From  then  till  her  death,  she  contributed 
regularly  to  Harper's.  She  published  "The  Old  Stone 
House"  (1873),  "Castle  Nowhere;  Lake  Country  Sketches" 
(1875),  "Rodman  the  Keeper;  Southern  Sketches"  (1880), 
"Anne"  (1882),  "For  the  Major"  (1883),  "East  Angels" 
(1886),  her  most  elaborate  and  perhaps  her  best  novel, 
dealing  with  ante-bellum  Georgia  coast  life,  "Jupiter 
Lights"  (1889),  and  "Horace  Chase"  (1894),  by  many 


192  The  Nineteenth  Century 

preferred  to  any  of  her  other  works.  Possessing  decided 
gifts  as  a  novelist,  she  had  a  high  standard  of  excellence. 
Some  of  her  plots  are  intricate,  but  all  are  skilfully  worked 
out.  Charles  Dudley  Warner  spoke  of  her  as  one  of  the 
first  in  America  to  bring  the  short  story  as  a  social  study 
to  its  present  degree  of  excellence.  Her  best  work  should 
have  more  than  a  merely  ephemeral  life. 

Henry  James,  Jr. — A  subject  of  contention  among  critics, 
having  an  ardent  if  not  a  large  following,  but  standing 
for  something  like  caviare  to  the  general  public,  Henry 
James  is  to-day  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  among 
American  novelists.  He  was  born  in  New  York,  April  15, 
1843,  the  son  of  Henry  James  the  theologian,  and  a  younger 
brother  of  William  James  the  psychologist.  His  family 
was  Irish  on  the  father's  side  and  Scotch  on  the  mother's. 
He  has  told  us  of  his  early  years  and  of  how,  while  the  other 
boys  were  at  their  games,  he  used  to  sit  on  the  hearth-rug 
studying  Punch  and  learning  about  the  life  which  John 
Leech's  pictures  suggested  to  him.  At  eleven  he  was  sent 
abroad  and  spent  six  years  in  England,  France,  and  Switzer 
land,  deeply  interested  in  European  culture,  art,  and  social 
tradition.  On  his  return,  his  family  made  their  home  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island.  In  1862  he  entered  the  Harvard 
Law  School,  but  found  more  pleasure  in  the  lectures  of 
James  Russell  Lowell  on  literature  than  in  the  reading  of 
law.  Soon  after  leaving  Cambridge,  having  succeeded 
with  some  early  ventures  in  The  Galaxy  and  other  mag 
azines,  he  began  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
Since  1869  he  has  lived  abroad,  chiefly  in  Paris,  London, 
and  Italy.  His  life  has  been  a  quiet,  uneventful  study 
of  men  and  women,  of  books,  of  places. 

Mr.  James  has  been  a  fairly  prolific  writer,  of  constantly 
increasing  subtlety  and  attention  to  finish.  His  first 
stories,  curiously  enough,  revealed  a  romantic,  at  times 
even  sensational,  bent,  which  he  soon  outgrew.  His 


The  Novelists  193 

first  novel,  "Watch  and  Ward"  (1871),  was  promising  but 
not  otherwise  significant;  "Roderick  Hudson"  (1875)  was 
quite  equal  to  the  best  of  his  later  work,  combining  pro 
found  analysis  of  character  with  perhaps  more  sentiment 
than  appears  in  his  later  works.  It  is  a  study  of  the  artistic 
temperament  in  the  person  of  a  young  American  sculptor 
who  is  taken  to  Italy  by  a  rich  virtuoso.  The  story  deals 
with  two  favourite  studies  of  Mr.  James:  the  contrast  be 
tween  Americans  and  the  older  races  with  which  they  come 
into  contact  in  Europe,  and  the  contrast  between  the  artistic 
and  the  prosaic  person.  The  first  of  these  contrasts  forms 
the  subject  of  "A  Passionate  Pilgrim"  (1875),  including 
that  exquisite  story  "The  Madonna  of  the  Future,"  of 
"The  American"  (1877),  and  of  "Daisy  Miller,  a  Comedy" 
(1878),  in  which  a  burlesque  element  is  noticeable.  From 
the  year  1875,  then,  may  be  said  to  date  the  "international 
novel"  of  comparison  or  contrast,  which  has  become  so 
immensely  popular.  In  "The  Europeans"  (1878),  the 
scene  changes  to  Boston  and  the  author  shows  how  the 
life  of  the  Puritans  appears  to  foreign  visitors.  Other 
international  studies  are  found  in  "An  International 
Episode"  (1879),  "The  Portrait  of  a  Lady"  (1881),  one  of 
his  most  popular  longer  novels,  and  "The  Siege  of  London, 
The  Pension  Beaurepas,  and  The  Point  of  View"  (1883). 
In  1880  (dated  1881)  appeared  "Washington  Square," 
a  quiet  story  laid  in  a  formerly  aristocratic  quarter  of  New 
York;  the  tale  has  been  called  "a  miracle  in  monotone." 
Then  came  "The  Bostonians"  (1886),  which  Professor 
Richardson  speaks  of  as  typically  "  long,  dull,  and  inconse 
quential,  but  mildly  pleasing  the  reader,  or  at  times  quite 
delighting  him,  by  a  deliberate  style  which  is  enjoyable 
for  its  own  sake,  by  a  calm  portraiture  which  represents 
the  characters  with  silhouette  clearness,  and  by  some  very 
faithful  and  delicately  humorous  pictures  of  the  life  and 
scenery  of  Eastern  Massachusetts."  "The  Princess  Casa- 
massima"  (1886)  continues  the  career  of  an  American 
13 


194  The  Nineteenth  Century 

adventuress,  Christina  Light,  who  has  figured  in  "  Roderick 
Hudson,"  to  which  it  thus  forms  a  kind  of  sequel.  Less 
read  than  some  others,  it  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  Mr.  James'  stories.  In  1888  appeared  "The  Aspern 
Papers,  and  Other  Stories"  and  "The  Reverberator,"  a 
comedy  of  manners  recalling  "The  American, "  and  dealing 
with  the  incompatibility  between  the  cultivated  and  the 
vulgar  relatives  of  two  lovers  and  with  the  odious  violation 
of  private  life  by  modern  journalism.  "  The  Tragic  Muse  " 
(1890),  a  study  of  a  psychological  problem  of  art  and  love, 
is  complicated  and  difficult  in  the  extreme ;  a  friend  ex 
pressed  a  sound  view  of  it  to  Mr.  James:  "  I  will  say  it  is 
your  best  novel  if  you  promise  never  to  do  it  again," 
probably  meaning  that  the  extreme  limit  of  elaboration  had 
been  reached.  Three  collections  of  stories,  "The  Lesson 
of  the  Master,  and  Other  Stories"  (1892),  "The  Real  Thing, 
and  Other  Tales"  (1893),  and  "Terminations"  (1895), 
include  various  comic  sketches,  with  some  preciosities,  and 
a  well-told  ghost-story,  "  Sir  Edmund  Orme, "  the  motif 
of  which  was  later  repeated  in  "The  Turn  of  the  Screw" 
(1898),  a  horrible,  nerve-racking  tale.  "The  Other 
House"  (1896)  is  a  highly  dramatic,  even  sensational, 
story  of  passion,  culminating,  strange  to  say,  in  a  murder; 
yet  Rose  Armiger  is  Mr.  James'  one  supremely  passionate 
woman.  In  1897  were  published  "The  Spoils  of  Poynton" 
and  "What  Maisie  Knew,"  the  latter  a  rather  unpleasant 
story  of  domestic  unhappiness  and. sordid  intrigue;  Maisie 
being  a  little  girl  whose  life  was  spent  alternately  in  the  com 
pany  of  divorced  parents,  equally  guilty,  each  of  whom 
had  remarried.  "In  the  Cage"  (1898)  is  a  tissue  of 
shrewd  guess-work  woven  by  a  lively  telegraph  girl  who 
becomes  interested  in  the  love  affair  of  two  others.  "The 
Two  Magics"  (1898)  includes  "The  Turn  of  the  Screw" 
and  "  Covering  End, "  a  pleasant  comedy  about  an  English 
country  house.  "The  Awkward  Age"  (1899)  is  a  unique 
example  of  subtle,  often  elusive,  analysis  of  character — of 


The  Novelists  195 

character  which  some  might  say  was  not  worth  analysis, 
with  unimportant  incidents  and  little  action.  "The  Soft 
Side"  (1900)  is  a  collection  of  studies  of  abnormal  char 
acter  and  curious  psychical  phenomena,  in  which  the 
rhythm  of  the  prose  is  at  times  remarkable  for  its  sug- 
gestiveness.  "The  Sacred  Fount"  (1901)  is  a  fanciful 
sketch  dealing  with  the  idea  of  youth  as  a  rejuvenator  of 
age.  "The  Wings  of  the  Dove"  (1902)  has  been  called 
the  most  remarkable  book  that  Mr.  James  has  written.  It 
is  a  long  story  of  the  old  warfare  between  the  flesh  and 
the  spirit,  in  which  the  unseen  forces  from  another  world 
play  an  unlooked-for  part.  Mr.  James'  most  recent  stories 
are  "The  Better  Sort"  (1903),  "The  Ambassadors"  (1904), 
and  "The  Golden  Bowl"  (1905). 

It  is  difficult  to  sum  up  in  a  few  words  the  leading  traits 
of  Mr.  James.  It  is  easy  to  speak  of  him  as  reeling  off 
volumes  of  abstruseness  in  which  the  petty  ambitions  of 
worthless  Americans  are  analysed  with  a  minuteness  like 
that  in  which  the  leisurely  student  of  anatomy  delights; 
but  such  innocuous  "criticism"  does  not  even  touch  Mr. 
James.  Undoubtedly  it  has  been  increasingly  hard  of  late 
years  to  follow  him;  his  later  stories,  with  their  proneness 
to  excessive  psychological  delving,  have  a  certain  analogy 
to  Browning's  later  poems,  which  became  harder  to  follow. 
But  judged  by  his  best  works,  such  as  "  Roderick  Hud 
son, "  "The  Princess  Casamassima, "  and  "The  Other 
House,"  he  must  be  pronounced  a  great  artist,  a  keen 
analyst  of  the  small  section  of  life  and  the  few  types  of  char 
acter  which  he  has  chosen  to  study  (and  if  one  does  not 
care  for  the  types,  one  may  still  recognise  the  art  with 
which  they  are  presented) ;  and  as  always  a  loyal  American. 
He  is  not  a  master  of  style;  yet  at  his  best  he  embodies 
certain  qualities  of  supreme  excellence  in  style — ease,  in 
timacy,  suggestiveness,  lucidity,  sincerity.  He  is  never  a 
preacher,  nor  is  he  ever  the  mere  idler  and  dilettante.  He 
is  very  much  in  earnest;  and  in  consequence,  the  moral 


196  The  Nineteenth  Century 

effect  of  his  exposition  of  life  is  wholesome.  "  Out  of  the 
corruption,  "  says  Miss  Gary, 1  "  of  a  society  which  Mr.  James 
depicts  with  unsparing  detail  and  without  satire  or  didactic 
comment,  rises  the  flame  of  purity.  Some  one  among  his 
characters  is  sure  to  stand  for  invincible  goodness."  If 
the  language  of  his  later  books  becomes  unintelligible,  it 
will  of  course  be  a  pity;  but  it  seems  quite  unlikely  that 
the  great  works  of  his  middle  period  will  soon  cease  to 
have  a  large  body  of  appreciative  and  delighted  readers. 

Edward  Eggleston. — The  Hoosier  life  of  southern  In 
diana  has  been  described  by  Edward  Eggleston  (1837- 
1902).  A  native  of  Vevay,  Indiana,  he  received  only  a 
brief  school  education,  but  taught  himself  several  languages. 
He  first  became  (1857)  an  itinerant  Methodist  minister  in 
southern  Indiana  and  then  for  nine  years  was  a  Bible 
Society  agent  in  Minnesota.  From  1866  till  1879,  he  was 
engaged  partly  in  journalism  and  partly  in  a  Brooklyn 
pastorate;  then  he  retired  to  his  country  place  on  Lake 
George  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  literature. 

His  first  book  to  win  attention  was  "  The  Hoosier  School 
master"  (1871),  which  first  appeared  as  a  serial  in  Hearth 
and  Home.  Having  read  Taine's  "  Art  in  the  Netherlands,  " 
he  says,  he  proceeded  to  apply  Taine's  maxim,  that  an 
artist  ought  to  paint  what  he  has  seen.  The  result  was  so 
faithful  a  picture  that  in  spite  of  its  faults  it  has  a  perma 
nent  value  as  a  record  of  one  phase  of  early  Western  life. 
Dr.  Eggleston  also  wrote  "The  End  of  the  World"  (1872), 
which  deals  with  the  Millerites,  who  in  1842-3  proved  by 
the  Book  of  Daniel  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand ; 
"The  Mystery  of  Metropolisville "  (1873);  "The  Circuit 
Rider,  a  Tale  of  the  Heroic  Age"  (1874),  in  which  he  drew 
on  his  own  early  experiences;  "Roxy"  (1878),  a  story  of 
picturesque  incident  and  character  development  laid  in  the 
time  of  the  Tippecanoe  campaign  of  1840;  "The  Graysons, 

1  Scribner's  Magazine,  October,  1904,  xxxvi.  399, 


The  Novelists  197 

a  Story  of  Illinois"  (1888),  a  realistic  picture  of  pioneer  life 
in  which  Abraham  Lincoln  figures  as  a  character;  "The 
Faith  Doctor"  (1891),  which  deals  with  Christian  Science 
and  kindred  phenomena  in  New  York,  and  which  shows  the 
influence  of  Mr.  Howells;  and  "Duffels"  (1893),  a  collec 
tion  of  stories. 

Dr.  Eggleston  himself  spoke  of  his  attitude  in  literature 
as  a  constant  struggle  "between  the  lover  of  literary  art 
and  the  religionist,  the  reformer,  the  philanthropist,  the 
man  with  a  mission."  We  are  not  of  course  surprised  to 
find  an  editor  of  The  Sunday  School  Teacher  making  his 
moral  too  prominent.  But  while  this  mars  much  of  his 
work,  his  novels  may  still  be  said  to  be  fresh  and  genuine 
transcripts  of  life. 

Julian  Hawthorne. — Julian  Hawthorne  (born  in  1846) 
inherited  literary  ability  from  his  father,  the  romancer. 
As  an  infant  he  was  delicate;  at  seven  his  health  was  good, 
but  having  been  kept  out  of  school  he  could  neither  read  nor 
write.  Entering  Harvard  in  1863,  he  became  known  as 
an  all-around  athlete.  After  leaving  Harvard  without 
graduating,  he  lived  in  Dresden  for  some  years,  then  re 
turned  to  America  and  became  a  hydrographic  engineer 
in  New  York.  In  1871  he  began  to  win  attention  to  his 
short  stories,  and  since  1872  has  devoted  himself  to  litera 
ture  and  journalism,  living  successively  in  Dresden,  London, 
and  New  York.  "Bressant,"  his  first  novel,  published  in 
Appleton's  Journal  in  1872,  is  somewhat  crude  and  not 
without  sensational  elements,  but  holds  the  interest.  Then 
came  "Idolatry"  (1874),  which,  though  rewritten  in  whole 
or  in  part  seven  times,  is  now  unknown,  "Garth"  (1877), 
a  long  story  of  New  Hampshire,  the  chief  part  being  a 
painter's  love-story,  "Sebastian  Strome"  (1880),  a  study  of 
the  chastening  of  a  selfish  character,  strongly  reminding 
us  of  "Adam  Bede, "  "Dust"  (1883),  a  story  of  extreme 
self-sacrifice,  "Fortune's  Fool"  (1884),  "Archibald  Mai- 


198  The  Nineteenth  Century 

maison"  (1884),  a  novelette,  and  "Beatrix  Randolph" 
(1884).  In  general  his  stories  are  not  pleasant  reading. 
Impossible  characters  are  not  infrequent  and  there  is  a 
tendency  toward  the  choice  of  morbid  subjects.  Many 
descriptive  passages,  however,  are  superbly  done,  and  the 
general  impression  one  gets  is  that  of  power,  but  of  power 
unrestrained,  a  strong  imagination  capable  of  greater  things 
than  Mr.  Hawthorne  has  done.  Yet  the  qualities  char 
acteristic  of  his  best  books,  like  "Archibald  Malmaison, " 
are  such  as  led  the  late  Richard  Henry  Stoddard,  a  man 
by  no  means  deficient  in  judgment,  and  familiar  with  the 
best  in  modern  literature,  to  pronounce  Mr.  Hawthorne 
"  clearly  and  easily  the  first  of  living  romancers. " 

In  recent  years,  Mr.  Hawthorne  has  forsaken  the  paths 
of  pure  literature,  with  which  he  seems  never  to  have  been 
in  love, 1  for  those  of  journalism. 

William  Dean  Howells. — The  apostle  of  latter-day 
realism,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  of  our  writers  of  fic 
tion,  is  Mr.  Howells.  He  has  been  prominent  in  literary 
circles  for  more  than  forty  years.  The  son  of  a  journalist 
and  printer,  Mr.  Howells  was  born  at  Martin's  Ferry,  Bel- 
mont  County,  Ohio,  in  1837.  His  father  had  adopted 
Swedenborgian  tenets  and  the  boy  was  reared  in  this  faith. 
His  boyhood  life  has  been  admirably  described  in  "A 
Boy's  Town."  The  family  lived  successively  at  several 
places  in  Ohio,  and  young  Howells  was  in  turn  composi 
tor,  correspondent,  and  news  editor.  In  1859  he  began 
contributing  to  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  his  first  poem, 
"Andenken, "  appearing  anonymously  in  January,  1860. 
Nearly  every  volume  of  The  Atlantic  down  to  1900  con 
tains  some  of  his  work.  A  campaign  "  Life  of  Abraham 
Lincoln"  (1860)  netted  him  $160,  and  enabled  him  to 
make  his  first  trip  East  and  to  meet  Emerson,  Lowell,  and 
other  New  England  writers;  it  also  won  for  him  the  post 

»  Cf.  "Confessions  and  Criticisms"  (1886),  pp.  15-16. 


The  Novelists  199 

of  Consul  at  Venice,  which  he  held  from  1861  till  1865. 
The  first  fruits  of  his  Italian  residence  were  "Venetian 
Life"  (1866)  and  "Italian  Journeys"  (1867),  two  descrip 
tive  works  which  revealed  a  truly  poetic  temperament  and 
a  refined  taste.  On  his  return  to  America,  Mr.  Howells 
became  an  editorial  writer  for  the  New  York  Times  and 
a  contributor  to  The  Nation.  The  next  year  (1866),  re 
moving  to  Boston,  he  became  assistant  editor  of  The  At 
lantic;  in  1871  he  became  the  editor  and  made  the  magazine 
a  stronger  force  than  ever  in  criticism.  On  resigning  this 
post  in  1880,  he  spent  a  year  or  two  abroad;  since  1888  he 
has  lived  in  New  York,  engaged  chiefly  in  literary  work. 
From  1886  till  1891  he  conducted  the  Editor's  Study  in 
Harper's. 

While  Mr.  Howells  has  been  prolific  in  criticism,  de 
scription,  narratives  of  travel,  literary  and  personal  remi 
niscences,  and  lighter  essays,  his  most  significant  work 
has  been  done  in  his  novels.  His  first  appearance  as  a 
writer  of  fiction  was  in  1871,  with  "  Their  Wedding  Journey," 
a  slight  but  delicately  humorous  tale  of  a  Boston  couple, 
the  Marches,  who  go  to  Canada  to  spend  their  honeymoon. 
"A  Chance  Acquaintance"  (1873)  is  a  subtle  study  of  in 
compatibility  of  temperament.  "  A  Foregone  Conclusion" 
(1875)  transports  us  to  Venice,  where  we  watch  the  un 
happy  love  story,  dramatically  told,  of  an  agnostic  priest 
and  an  American  girl.  "The  Lady  of  the  Aroostook" 
(1879)  is  an  amusing,  healthy  story  of  New  England 
provincial  manners.  The  theme  of  "  The  Undiscovered 
Country"  (1880)  is  spiritualism  and  mesmerism.  "A 
Fearful  Responsibility"  (1881)  is  the  story  of  an  American 
professor  in  Venice  whose  charge,  a  young  girl,  is  loved 
by  an  Austrian  officer.  In  "Dr.  Breen's  Practice"  (1881) 
we  have  pictures  of  summer  life  in  a  small  seaside  village 
in  Maine  and  a  study  of  modern  Puritanism.  With 
"A  Modern  Instance"  (1881)  may  be  said  to  begin  the 
extremely  realistic  stories  in  Mr.  Howells'  later  manner; 


200  The  Nineteenth  Century 

others  are:  "A  Woman's  Reason"  (1883),  "The  Rise  of 
Silas  Lapham"  (1885),  "Indian  Summer"  (1886),  "The 
Minister's  Charge,  or  The  Apprenticeship  of  Lemuel 
Barker"  (1887),  "April  Hopes"  (1887),  "Annie  Kilburn" 
(1888),  "A  Hazard  of  New  Fortunes"  (1890),  in  which 
the  Marches  have  characteristic  experiences  in  New  York, 
"The  Quality  of  Mercy"  (1892),  a  painful  but  well  told 
story,  "The  Coast  of  Bohemia"  (1893),  "An  Open-Eyed 
Conspiracy"  (1897),  "Ragged  Lady"  (1899),  "The  Flight 
of  Pony  Baker"  (1902),  a  captivating  boys'  story,  belong 
ing  with  "A  Boy's  Town,"  "The  Kentons"  (1903),  and 
' '  The  Son  of  Royal  Langbrit h  "  (1905).  From  these  novels , 
after  the  manner  of  Tolstoi,  the  romantic  and  even  the 
ideal  are  rigorously  excluded;  we  are  treated  to  exhaustive, 
minutely  detailed  accounts  of  the  daily  lives  of  ordinary, 
generally  commonplace  people.  Plot  and  incident  are  of 
secondary  importance,  although  some  chapters  fairly  bristle 
with  incident ;  Mr.  Howells  holds  that  any  transcript  of  real 
life,  even  though  made  at  random,  if  skilfully  handled, 
is  of  sufficient  interest  to  form  a  good  story.  Naturally 
this  view  of  the  novel  has  found  many  opponents,  and 
Mr.  Howells'  books  have  been  somewhat  less  popular  of 
late  years  than  they  were  in  the  eighties.  After  all,  the 
hunger  for  the  ideal  cannot  be  wholly  appeased  by  dis 
agreeable  actualities;  and  there  are  people  whom  we  know 
all  too  well  in  the  flesh  to  care  to  see  them,  in  all  their 
pettiness  and  meanness  and  duplicity,  in  the  pages  of  fic 
tion.  Mr.  Howells'  followers,  however, — and  there  are 
many  of  them — contend  that  nothing  is  so  interesting  as 
real,  actual,  present  life;  that  no  detail  of  our  daily  round 
is  without  its  significance;  that  the  slightest  act  or  omis 
sion  of  an  act  may  affect  our  destiny.  After  all,  the 
realists  and  the  romanticists  we  have  always  with  us;  the 
former  are  just  now  in  the  majority;  but  the  reaction  is 
just  as  inevitable  as  the  return  of  the  pendulum. 

In  some  of  his  later  stories,  as  "The  Traveller  from 


The  Novelists  201 

Altruria"  (1894)  and  "Through  the  Eye  of  the  Needle" 
(1907),  Mr.  Howells  has  shown  an  increasing  interest  in 
the  more  serious  problems  of  society — poverty,  strikes,  the 
causes  of  crime,  "the  tyranny  of  individualism,"  and  the 
conditions  that  hinder  the  spread  of  sympathy  and  human 
brotherhood.  The  effect  of  this  increased  ethical  and 
human  interest  has  probably  not  been  to  enhance  the  ar 
tistic  value  of  his  work;  and  some  deplore  his  lapse  from 
the  high  ideal  of  art  for  art's  sake.  Others  see  in  Mr. 
Howells'  recent  works  a  greater  attention  to  substance,  a 
firmer  tissue,  a  broader  humanity.  And  always,  be  it 
said,  in  reading  Mr.  Howells,  one  is  conscious  of  that  fine 
and  careful  workmanship,  that  care  for  correct  and  proper 
form,  that  artistic  conscience,  without  which,  whatever  his 
literary  creed,  Mr.  Howells  could  never  have  become  the 
foremost  and  representative  American  novelist  of  his  time. 

Frances  Hodgson  Burnett. — Frances  H.  Burnett  was  born 
in  Manchester,  England,  in  1849,  but  came  to  America  with 
her  parents  in  1865  and  lived  for  eight  years,  until  her 
marriage,  in  New  Market  and  Knoxville,  Tennessee.  Since 
then  she  has  lived  in  Washington  and  in  Kent,  England. 
She  first  gained  notice  with  "Surly  Tim's  Trouble"  (Scrib- 
ner's  Monthly,  June,  1872),  a  story  of  Lancashire,  as  were 
also  "That  Lass  o'  Lowrie's"  (1877),  " Dolly"  (1877,  repub- 
lished  in  1883  as  "  Vagabondia ") ,  and  "  Haworth's  "  (1879) 
said  to  be  a  favourite  with  its  author.  With  "  Louisiana" 
(1880)  she  turned  to  America  for  material,  describing  life 
in  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina.  "Through  One  Ad 
ministration"  (1883)  is  a  pathetic  and  powerful  story  of 
social  and  political  life  in  Washington.  "  Little  Lord 
Fauntleroy"  (1886),  the  Anglo-American  story  of  a  seven- 
year-old  hero,  has  become  a  children's  classic;  similar  but 
less  known  are  the  tales  in  "  Sara  Crewe,  and  Other  Stories  " 
(1888),  and  "The  Captain's  Youngest,  Piccino,  and  Other 
Stories"  (1894).  In  "The  Pretty  Sister  of  Jose"'  (1889), 


202  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Mrs.  Burnett  deals  with  picturesque  and  striking  Spanish 
characters  and  scenes.  "A  Lady  of  Quality"  (1896) 
and  its  sequel,  "His  Grace  of  Osmonde"  (1897),  are  melo 
dramatic  stories  of  English  aristocrats  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  "In  Connection  with  the 
De  Willoughby  Claim"  (1899)  deals  with  country  life  in 
Tennessee  in  the  early  sixties.  Her  latest  stories  are 
"The  Dawn  of  a  To-Morrow"  (1906)  and  "The  Shuttle" 
(1907),  the  latter  a  fascinating  international  novel.  She 
has  thoroughly  demonstrated  her  power  to  delineate  char 
acter  as  moulded  by  passion. 

Philander  Deming. — Philander  Deming  (born  in  Carlisle, 
New  York,  in  1829),  a  lawyer  by  profession,  in  1873  began 
publishing  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly  stories  and  sketches  the 
scene  of  which  is  laid  in  the  Adirondack  region  of  northern 
New  York.  Devoid  of  sensationalism,  these  stories  portray 
simply  and  effectively  the  rude  but  sound  life  of  plain 
country  folk.  Mr.  Deming  has  published  in  book  form 
"  Adirondack  Stories"  (1880),  "  Tompkins  and  Other  Folks" 
(1885),  and  "The  Story  of  a  Pathfinder"  (1907). 

Lew  Wallace. — General  Lewis  Wallace  (1827-1905), 
an  Indiana  lawyer  and  soldier  in  the  Mexican  and  Civil 
Wars,  was  the  author  of  three  novels,  "The  Fair  God" 
(1873),  "Ben  Hur,  a  Tale  of  the  Christ"  (1880),  and  "The 
Prince  of  India"  (1893),  which  deserve  mention  chiefly 
because  of  their  popularity.  The  second,  especially, 
in  this  respect,  ranks  close  to  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 
Written  in  a  spirit  of  deep  reverence  for  the  traditional 
view  of  Jesus  of  Narareth,  and  making  small  demands 
upon  the  imagination,  it  could  hardly  fail  to  make  a 
strong  appeal  to  a  large  body  of  readers.  As  literature, 
however,  Wallace's  books  are  of  only  transient  importance. 

Charles  Dudley  Warner. — Charles  Dudley  Warner  (1829- 


The  Novelists  203 

1900)  belongs  mainly  with  the  essayists,  but  wrote  a  few 
novels  that  deserve  to  live.  With  Mark  Twain  he  wrote 
"The  Gilded  Age"  (1873).  "Their  Pilgrimage"  (1887)  has 
a  slight  plot,  but  gives  minute  and  accurate  descriptions  of 
Southern  watering-places.  "A  Little  Journey  in  the 
World"  (1889)  and  its  sequel,  "The  Golden  House"  (1895), 
are  vivid  pictures  of  decadent  New  York  society.  "That 
Fortune"  (1899)  is  a  picture,  drawn  from  expert  know 
ledge,  of  the  New  York  financial  world. 

Hjalmar  Hjorth  Boyesen. — Hjalmar  Hjorth  Boyesen 
(1848-95)  realised  the  dream  of  many  in  successfully 
combining  the  careers  of  authorship  and  teaching.  Born 
at  Frederiksvarn,  Norway,  and  educated  at  Christiania, 
he  came  to  America  in  1869.  He  first  became  editor  of  a 
Scandinavian  journal  in  Chicago.  Then  he  studied  philo 
logy  at  Leipsic  for  two  years  (1872—74).  From  1874  till 
1880  he  was  professor  of  German  at  Cornell  University, 
and  from  1881  till  his  death  he  filled  a  similar  chair  at 
Columbia  University.  Besides  some  poetry  and  essays, 
he  wrote  "  Gunnar,  a  Norse  Romance"  (1874),  his  one  effort 
in  romance,  "Tales  from  Two  Hemispheres"  (1876), 
"Falconberg"  (1879),  "Ilka  on  the  Hilltop"  (1881),  a 
collection  of  short  stories,  "Queen  Titania"  (1881),  "A 
Daughter  of  the  Philistines"  (1883),  "Social  Strugglers" 
(1893),  "The  Mammon  of  Unrighteousness"  (1891),  and 
"The  Golden  Calf"  (1892).  His  later  stories  were  realistic 
novels  concerned  with  vital  problems,  such  as  the  conflict 
between  wealth  and  essential  culture.  Their  vogue  was  not 
great,  but  their  workmanship  was  genuine. 

Blanche  Willis  Howard. — Blanche  Willis  Howard  (1847- 
98)  was  born  in  Bangor,  Maine,  was  educated  in  New  York, 
and  in  1878  went  to  Stuttgart,  Germany,  to  engage  in 
teaching  and  writing.  In  1890  she  was  married  to  Baron 
von  Teuffel,  a  physician.  She  wrote  a  number  of  novels, 


204  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  which  "One  Summer"  (1875),  "Aunt  Serena"  (1880), 
"Guenn"  (1882),  "Aulnay  Tower"  (1886),  "The  Open 
Door"  (1889),  "No  Heroes"  (1893),  a  b°ys'  story,  and 
"Seven  on  the  Highway"  (1897),  a  collection  of  short 
stories,  may  be  mentioned.  In  collaboration  with  William 
Sharp  she  wrote  "A  Fellowe  and  His  Wife"  (1892),  in 
which  a  comic  atmosphere  prevails.  Perhaps  "Guenn," 
the  pathetic  story  of  a  Breton  maiden's  hopeless  love,  is 
the  book  by  which  she  will  be  longest  remembered. 

Edgar  Fawcett. — Edgar  Fawcett  (1847-1904)  was  in  his 
day  a  prominent  and  popular  poet,  dramatist,  and  novelist. 
Born  and  reared  in  New  York,  and  at  twenty  graduated 
from  Columbia  College,  he  early  saw  the  rich  possibilities 
of  the  life  around  him,  and  confined  himself  to  the  delinea 
tion  of  New  York  people.  The  best  of  his  novels  are 
"  Rutherford"  (written  in  1876,  but  not  published  in  book 
form  till  1884),  "A  Hopeless  Case"  (1880),  "A  Gentleman 
of  Leisure"  (1881),  "An  Ambitious  Woman"  (1883), 
"The  House  at  High  Bridge"  (1886),  perhaps  his  best 
story,  "Fair  Fame"  (1894),  "Outrageous  Fortune"  (1894), 
and  "The  Ghost  of  Guy  Thyrle"  (1897).  He  was  fond 
of  attacking  the  petty  conventions  of  social  life  and  his 
satire  was  not  ineffective.  Partly  because  of  this  un 
pleasant  realism  his  books  have  already  ceased  to  be 
much  read. 

Edwin  Lassetter  Bynner. — Edwin  L.  Bynner  (1842-93), 
a  New  England  lawyer  and  journalist,  for  a  time  librarian 
of  the  Boston  Law  Library,  achieved  success  in  the  field  of 
the  historical  romance.  Beginning  with  "  Nimport "  (1877), 
he  produced  a  large  number  of  novels  and  short  stories,  of 
which  the  best  are  "Penelope's  Suitors"  (The  Atlantic, 
December,  1884),  "Agnes  Surriage"  (1887),  "The  Begum's 
Daughter"  (1889),  a  story  of  New  Amsterdam  in  1689, 
and  "  Zachary  Phips"  (1892),  which  introduces  the  myste- 


The  Novelists  205 

rious  Western  expedition  of  Aaron  Burr.  Accurate  on  the 
historical  side,  his  works  are  not  distinguished  artistic 
successes;  yet  they  make  the  past  live  again. 

Sarah  Orne  Jewett. — Sarah  Orne  Jewett  (born  in  1849) 
has  written  some  interesting  and  even  powerful  stories  of 
the  coast  of  New  England.  She  was  reared  at  South  Ber 
wick,  near  the  Maine  coast.  While  accompanying  her 
father,  a  physician,  on  his  rounds,  she  heard  from  him  many 
local  and  family  histories  and  traditions.  Her  first  story  was 
"Deephaven"  (1877);  and  she  has  since  written,  among 
others,  "Country  By-Ways"  (1881),  eight  sketches;  "The 
Mate  of  the  Daylight,  and  Friends  Ashore"  (1884),  short 
stories  and  sketches;  "A  Country  Doctor"  (1884),  "A 
Marsh  Island"  (1885),  and  "A  White  Heron"  (1886),  three 
stories  of  rural  New  England;  "Strangers  and  Wayfarers" 
(1890);  "A  Native  of  Winby,  and  Other  Tales"  (1893); 
"The  Country  of  the  Pointed  Firs"  (1896),  which  contains 
her  most  successful  character  studies;  "The  Queen's  Twin, 
and  Other  Stories"  (1899);  "The  Tory  Lover"  (1901), 
a  love-story  of  the  Revolution,  introducing  John  Paul 
Jones,  which  cannot  be  pronounced  successful.  Miss  Jewett 
is  at  her  best  in  her  kindly  humorous  and  sympathetic 
interpretations  of  humble  but  self-respecting  New  Eng- 
landers  of  the  present  day.  Her  humour  is  healthy  and 
contagious  and  her  style  is  for  the  most  part  simple,  clear, 
and  vigorous. 

Mrs.  Ellen  Olney  Kirk— Ellen  Olney  Kirk  ("Henry 
Hayes,"  born  in  Connecticut  in  1842)  has  been  popular  as 
a  novelist.  She  received  her  education  at  Stratford,  Conn., 
and  was  married  to  John  Foster  Kirk,  the  historian,  in  1879. 
Her  stories  include  "Love  in  Idleness"  (1877),  "A  Lesson 
in  Love"  (1883),  a  study  in  character,  "A  Midsummer  Mad 
ness"  (1885),  "The  Story  of  Margaret  Kent"  (1886), 
"Queen  Money"  (1888),  "The  Story  of  Lawrence  Garth" 


2o6  The  Nineteenth  Century 

(1894),  her  best  book,  in  which  the  difficult  character  of 
an  adventuress  is  well  drawn,  "The  Revolt  of  a  Daughter" 
(1898),  "Dorothy  Deane"  (1899),  "Our  Lady  Vanity" 
(1901),  "The  Apology  of  Ayliffe"  (1904),  and  "Marcia" 
(1907).  The  moral  in  her  stories  is  generally  not  obtru 
sive  and  the  humour  is  genial. 

Edward  Bellamy. — Edward  Bellamy  (1850-98),  a  native 
of  Massachusetts,  studied  at  Union  College  and  in  Germany, 
and  in  1871  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  devoted  his  life 
to  journalism  and  literature.  After  a  year  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  in  1878  he  published  his  first  novel,  "A  Nantucket 
Idyl,"  which  was  followed  by  "Dr.  Heidenhoff's  Process" 
(1880),  in  its  own  way  a  supremely  effective  romance,  and 
"Miss  Ludington's  Sister,  a  Romance  of  Immortality" 
(1884),  none  of  them  very  successful  with  the  public.  His 
best  known  work,  "Looking  Backward,  or  2000-1887" 
(1888),  a  Utopian  romance,  was  unexpectedly  received  as  a 
gospel  of  socialism;  it  was  widely  read  and  translated  into 
many  languages.  Much  inferior  artistically  was  its  sequel, 
"Equality"  (1897).  In  his  best  work  Bellamy  showed  a 
rare  gift  of  romantic  portraiture  of  average  types  "in  the 
village  environment  by  which  he  interpreted  the  heart  of 
the  American  nation. " 

Mrs.  Burton  N.  Harrison. — Mrs.  Burton  Harrison  (born 
Constance  Gary,  at  Vaucluse,  Virginia,  in  1846)  has  written 
interesting  and  highly  realistic  novels  of  New  York  City 
life,  full  of  local  colour  and  effective  in  background;  and 
some  novels  of  Virginia  life.  Mr.  Harrison,  to  whom  she 
was  married  in  1867,  had  been  private  secretary  to  Presi 
dent  Jefferson  Davis  of  the  Confederacy.  The  couple  soon 
removed  to  New  York,  which  has  since  been  their  permanent 
home.  Mrs.  Harrison's  first  venture  in  literature  was  "A 
Little  Centennial  Lady"  (Scribner's  Monthly,  July,  1876),  a 
Sprightly  historical  sketch.  Her  novels  dealing  with  North- 


The  Novelists  207 

ern  society  are  "Golden  Rod"  (1878),  "Helen  Troy" 
(1881),  "The  Anglomaniacs "  (1890),  "Sweet  Bells  out  of 
Tune"  (1893),  <<A  Bachelor  Maid"  (1894),  "An  Errant 
Wooing"  (1895),  "Good  Americans"  (1897),  "A  Triple 
Entanglement"  (1897),  "The  Carcelline  Emerald"  (1899), 
and  "The  Circle  of  a  Century."  Perhaps  the  chief  ex 
cellence  of  these  stories  is  the  dialogue,  in  the  manage 
ment  of  which  Mrs.  Harrison  shows  great  skill.  Although 
the  attitude  of  the  author  is  that  of  a  satirist,  her  laughter 
at  the  foibles  of  society  is  not  unkindly.  Of  Virginia  she 
has  written  "Crow's  Nest  and  Bellhaven  Tales"  (1892) 
and  "A  Son  of  the  Old  Dominion"  (1897),  which  deals 
with  pre-Re volutionary  times.  ' '  A  Daughter  of  the  South ' ' 
(1892)  is  an  exquisitely  told  story  of  New  Orleans  Creole 
life  thrown  into  the  environment  of  Paris  under  the  Second 
Empire. 

Charles  Egbert  Craddock. — Charles  Egbert  Craddock  is 
the  pen  name  of  Mary  Noailles  Murfree  (born  in  1850), 
who  contributed  to  The  Atlantic  for  several  years  before  it 
was  suspected  that  her  stories  were  written  by  a  woman. 
She  is  the  daughter  of  a  once  prominent  lawyer  of  Mur- 
freesboro,  Tennessee,  who  in  1883  removed  to  St.  Louis. 
Because  of  an  accident,  Miss  Murfree  was  for  several  years 
unable  to  walk.  She  was  a  diligent  student  and  somehow 
gained  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  mountaineers  of 
Eastern  Tennessee,  who  figure  in  all  of  her  stories.  Her  first 
story  of  any  importance  was  ' '  The  Dancin'  Party  at  Harri 
son's  Cove"  (The  Atlantic,  May,  1878).  It  was  largely 
due  to  Mr.  Aldrich's  urgent  representations  that  her  first 
collection  of  stories,  "In  the  Tennessee  Mountains,"  found 
a  publisher  (1884).  Of  this  a  writer  in  The  Nation  said, 
with  justice:  "We  have  not  only  one  mountain  valley,  but 
a  whole  country  of  hills — not  a  man  and  a  woman  here  and 
there,  but  the  people  of  a  whole  district — not  merely  a  day  of 
winter  or  of  summer,  but  all  the  year — not  lives,  but  life.  " 


2o8  The  Nineteenth  Century 

This  is  substantially  true  of  all  her  works,  in  which  she 
described  prosaic  and  pathetic  mountaineer  life,  being  al 
ways  inspired,  however,  by  the  solitude  and  grandeur  of  the 
Great  Smoky  Mountains.  The  list  of  her  works  is  a  long 
one:  "Where  the  Battle  was  Fought"  (1884);  "Down  the 
Ravine"  (1885) ;  "The  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Moun 
tains"  (1885),  which  recounts  the  history  of  "a  Bunyan 
worsted  by  his  doubts";  "In  the  Clouds"  (1887),  a  tragic 
story  likewise  dealing  with  religious  experiences;  "The 
Story  of  Keedon  Bluffs"  (1887);  "The  Despot  of  Broom- 
sedge  Cove"  (1889),  the  plot  of  which  hinges  on  a  mys 
terious  murder;  "In  the  Stranger  People's  Country" 
(1891);  "His  Vanished  Star"  (1894)?  "The  Mystery  of 
Witch-Face  Mountain,  and  Other  Stories"  (1895);  "The 
Juggler"  (1897);  "The  Young  Mountaineers"  (1897),  short 
stories;  "The  Champion"  (1902);  "A  Spectre  of  Power" 
(1903),  which  is  laid  in  the  year  1763  and  is  full  of  Indian 
love;  "The  Frontiersmen"  (1904);  and  "The  Storm 
Centre"  (1905).  Her  later  work  suffers  from  repetition 
of  certain  mannerisms  and  from  excessive  attention  to 
description;  possibly  also  from  too  rapid  production.  On 
the  whole,  however,  in  her  ability  to  present  the  pathos 
and  tragedy  of  simple  lives,  Miss  Murfree  has  a  place  of 
honour  among  present-day  writers. 

Anna  Katharine  Green. — Through  the  publication,  in 
1878,  of  "  The  Leavenworth  Case,"  a  clever  detective  story, 
this  author,  then  a  girl  of  nineteen,  was  brought  into 
immediate  notice  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  "The 
Leavenworth  Case"  was  followed  in  successive  years  by 
"A  Strange  Disappearance,"  "The  Sword  of  Damocles," 
"Hand  and  Ring, ""  Behind  Closed  Doors,"  "Marked 
'Personal,' "  "  That  Affair  Next  Door,"  "  Lost  Man's  Lane,  " 
"  One  of  My  Sons,"  and  other  volumes.  Some  critics  have 
spoken  of  Miss  Green  (who  is  now  Mrs.  Charles  Rohlfs)  as 
the  "  Wilkie  Collins  of  America."  Nearly  all  of  her  books 


The  Novelists  209 

have  appeared  in  transatlantic  editions.  Mrs.  Rohlfs  is 
also  responsible  for  two  volumes  of  poems,  "  The  Defence 
of  the  Bride "(1882)  and  "  Risifi's  Daughter"  (1886). 

Frank  R.  Stockton. — The  unique  and  kindly  humour 
of  Mr.  Stockton's  books  attracted  many  readers.  He  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1834  and  was  the  son  of  William 
S.  Stockton,  an  ardent  temperance  reformer,  abolitionist, 
and  Methodist  layman  who  helped  to  establish  the  Metho 
dist  Protestant  Church.  Educated  in  the  schools  of  Phila 
delphia,  young  Stockton  first  tried  the  study  of  medicine, 
then  worked  as  a  wood-engraver  for  some  years,  devoting 
his  leisure  time  to  prose  and  verse  writing.  In  1872,  he 
gave  up  wood-engraving  to  join  the  staff  of  the  Phila 
delphia  Morning  Post,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  was 
engaged  in  editorial  and  journalistic  work  on  Scribner's 
Monthly,  St.  Nicholas,  Hearth  and  Home,  etc.  From 
1882  until  his  death  in  1902,  Mr.  Stockton  was  independ 
ently  engaged  in  literary  work,  producing  a  large  number 
of  delightfully  humorous  stories  and  novels.  The  tale 
which  made  him  famous  was  "Rudder  Grange"  (1879), 
which  recounts  the  experiences  of  a  young  married  couple 
who  begin  housekeeping  in  a  castaway  barge  with  an 
absurd  handmaid  named  Pomona.  "The  Lady  or  the 
Tiger?  and  Other  Stories"  appeared  in  1884;  the  title 
story  is  the  best  known  of  Stockton's  works.  Other 
stories  are  "The  Late  Mrs.  Null"  (1886);  "The  Casting 
Away  of  Mrs.  Leeks  and  Mrs.  Aleshine"  (1886),  a  Crusoe- 
like  narrative,  a  sequel  to  which  is  "  The  Dusantes"  (1888) ; 
"The  Hundredth  Man"  (1887);  "The  Merry  Chanter" 
(1890);  "The  Squirrel  Inn"  (1891);  "Pomona's  Travels" 
(1894),  which  narrates  the  wedding  journey  of  the  amus 
ing  Pomona  through  England  and  Scotland;  "The  Ad 
ventures  of  Captain  Horn"  (1895)  and  its  sequel,  "Mrs. 
Cliff's  Yacht"  (1896),  which  deal  with  adventures  in  quest 
of  the  treasure  of  the  Incas  of  Peru;  "  A  Bicycle  of  Cathay  " 


210  The  Nineteenth  Century 

(1900) ;  and  "  Afield  and  Afloat "  (1901),  a  collection  of  short 
stories.  While  his  style  is  remarkably  simple  and  free 
from  mannerisms,  "the  art  that  conceals  art,  until  it 
can  pass  for  nature  itself, "  his  method  of  handling  plot 
and  character  is  distinctively  his  own.  His  reasoning  is 
always  logical,  but  he  contrives  that  it  shall  bring  about 
the  most  amusing  absurdities  conceivable.  If,  as  one  writer 
alleges,  "  his  whimsicality  played  on  the  surface  of  men 
and  things, "  one  may  reply  that  that  is  precisely  where  it 
should  play.  His  stories  are  none  the  less  wholesome, 
even  though  he  rarely  or  never  touches  on  the  pathetic. 
He  was  equally  at  home  with  the  novel  and  the  short 
story;  but  probably  it  is  by  his  short  stories  that  he  will 
be  longest  known. 

George  Washington  Cable. — George  W.  Cable  (born  in 
1844)  has  immortalised  the  picturesque  Creole  life  of 
Louisiana  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Born  in  New  Orleans 
of  Virginian  and  New  England  stock,  he  had  little  school 
training  and  early  became  a  clerk.  At  nineteen  he  entered 
the  Confederate  Army,  serving  till  the  close  of  the  war. 
Then  he  became  in  succession  a  civil  engineer  and  an 
accountant,  contributing  meanwhile  to  the  New  Orleans 
Picayune.  Seven  of  his  stories  were  collected  and  published 
in  1879  as  "Old  Creole  Days."  "The  Grandissimes " 
(1880),  which  remains  his  best  work,  is  a  graphic  and 
faithful  picture  of  New  Orleans  life  of  a  century  ago,  em 
bodying  romance  and  realism.  "Madame  Delphine" 
(1881)  is  a  touching  story  of  a  heroic  old  quadroon  woman. 
In  "Dr.  Sevier"  (1884),  Cable  has  studied  in  romantic 
vein  an  exceptional  type  of  character,  though  not  with 
marked  success.  "  Bonaventure,  a  Prose  Pastoral  of  Ar 
cadian  Louisiana"  (1888),  a  better  book,  is  a  chapter  of 
ethical  history.  "Strange  True  Stories  of  Louisiana"  ap 
peared  in  1889.  Less  interesting  as  fiction,  but  valuable 
as  a  social  study,  is  "John  March,  Southerner"  (1894),  a 


The  Novelists  211 

story  of  Southern  Reconstruction.  "The  Cavalier"  (1901) 
goes  back  to  the  Civil  War,  but  subordinates  interest  in 
the  conflict  to  interest  in  character;  while  "  Bylow  Hill" 
(1902)  is  a  tragic  story  of  insane  jealousy,  the  scene 
being  New  England.  Since  1885,  Mr.  Cable  has  lived  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts.  His  later  work,  like  that 
of  many  another,  has  probably  suffered  from  a  natural 
tendency  to  subordinate  the  artistic  to  the  ethical. 
But  in  the  province  which  he  has  made  his  own,  the  pio 
neer  remains  supreme.  "  Few  recent  American  novelists,  " 
Professor  Richardson  justly  remarks,  "  have  shown  so 
uniform  an  average  of  attainment  in  thought  and  art, 
or  have  thrown  upon  the  quaintly  real  such  new  tints  of 
ideal  light. " 

Albion  Wine  gar  Tour  gee. — Albion  W.  Tourgee  (1838- 
1905),  an  Ohioan,  studied  (1858-61)  at  the  University  of 
Rochester,  saw  service  in  the  Union  Army,  and  afterward 
became  an  editor  and  lawyer  at  Greensboro,  North  Caro 
lina.  Most  of  his  novels  deal  with  phases  of  the  Recon 
struction  Period  in  the  South.  The  best  of  these  were :  "  A 
Fool's  Errand,  by  One  of  the  Fools"  (1879),  doubtless  his 
best  known  work,  " Bricks  Without  Straw"  (1880),  and 
"The  Invisible  Empire"  (1883).  "  Figs  and  Thistles "  (1879) 
is  a  realistic  story  of  early  Ohio,  in  which  the  career  of 
President  Garfield  is  introduced;  "Pactolus  Prime"  (1890) 
is  the  story  of  a  Washington  bootblack  who  has  views  on  the 
negro  problem.  A  man  of  strong  opinions,  Judge  Tourgee 
could  not  write  a  novel  which  did  not  provoke  thought; 
and  he  was  by  no  means  devoid  of  the  true  story-teller's 
cunning. 

The  Eighties. — The  decade  of  1880-90  beheld  the  growth 
of  realism  to  vigorous  maturity.  Romances  not  a  few 
were  written,  to  be  sure,  such  as  the  "Ramona"  (1884) 
of  Mrs.  Helen  Fiske  Jackson  ("H.  H.,"  1831-85),  in  which 


212  The  Nineteenth  Century 

a  romantic  narrative  clothes  a  strong  plea  for  more  humane 
treatment  of  the  Indians,  and  the  two  Italian  romances 
of  William  Waldorf  Astor  (born  in  1848),  "Valentino" 
(1885)  and  "Sforza,  a  Story  of  Milan"  (1889).  But 
these  can  hardly  be  called  representative  stories  in  a 
decade  which  saw  the  best  work  of  Howells,  James,  Crad- 
dock,  Fawcett,  Bunner,  Cable,  and  many  others  who  wrote 
of  the  life  they  had  seen  and  were  content  to  employ 
present-day  settings. 

A  few  writers  may  here  be  grouped  together  for  con 
venience.  To  the  decade  in  question  belong  the  best 
stories  of  George  Parsons  Lathrop  (1851-98),  the  son-in- 
law  of  Hawthorne:  "In  the  Distance"  (1882),  "An  Echo 
of  Passion"  (1882),  and  "Would  You  Kill  Him?"  (1889), 
which  amounts  to  a  plea  against  capital  punishment;  and 
most  of  the  fiction  of  Professor  Arlo  Bates  (born  in  1850) : 
"The  Pagans"  (1884)  and  its  sequel  "The  Philistines" 
(1889),  "A  Lad's  Love"  (1887),  though  "The  Puritans" 
dates  from  1898.  Fine  pictures  of  Italian  life  have  been 
drawn  by  Julia  Constance  Fletcher  ("George  Fleming," 
born  in  1853)  in  "Vestigia"  (1882)  and  "Andromeda" 
(1885),  the  latter  a  story  of  high  ideals  and  noble  self- 
sacrifice.  Illinois  life  in  the  unattractive  baldness  of 
pioneer  days  is  portrayed  by  Major  Joseph  Kirkland 
(1830-94)  in  " Zury,  the  Meanest  Man  in  Spring  County" 
(1887)  and  "The  McVeys,  an  Episode"  (1888),  in  which 
Lincoln  again  figures  as  in  Eggleston's  "  Graysons. " 

Henry  Adams  and  John  Hay. — "Democracy"  (1880), 
an  anonymous  novel  the  authorship  of  which  has  hitherto 
baffled  the  critics,  and  which  the  present  writer  can  now 
announce  definitely  to  have  been  the  work  of  the  historian 
Henry  Adams,  is  a  keen  and  incisive  study  of  political 
society  in  Washington,  vividly  portraying  the  corruption 
which  perhaps  inevitably  attends  the  growth  of  the  people's 
power,  but  concerning  which  the  author  is  all  too  pes- 


The  Novelists  213 

simistic.  The  bribery  case  which  aids  Mrs.  Lee  in  un 
masking  the  real  character  of  Silas  P.  Ratcliffe  finds  a 
parallel  in  our  contemporary  history;  and  several  of  the 
characters  are  thought  to  have  been  drawn  from  real  life. 
Happily,  whatever  may  have  been  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Washington  in  1880,  the  story  would  be  very  far  from  a 
true  picture  of  the  Washington  of  to-day.  John  Hay 
(1838-1905),  lawyer,  journalist,  diplomatist,  and  states 
man,  was  the  author  of  a  single  novel,  and  his  connection 
with  that  has  been,  up  to  the  appearance  of  the  present 
volume,  only  a  conjecture.  Prudence,  however,  obviously, 
required  that  "The  B read- Winners "  (1883)  should  appear 
anonymously.  As  a  politician,  and  as  acting  editor  of 
The  Tribune,  Mr.  Hay  did  not  then  wish  to  avow  himself 
the  author  of  a  "frivolous  novel";  besides,  in  the  story 
he  had  spoken  rather  plainly  about  strikes  and  labour 
troubles.  The  story  itself  is  well  written,  natural,  and  for 
the  most  part  true  to  life.  Of  the  two  love  scenes,  the 
proposal  of  Maud  Matchin  is  more  convincing  than  is 
Farnham's  to  Alice  Belding.  The  plot  is  well  worked  out; 
our  interest  in  the  story  for  itself  almost  never  flags. 

Joel  Chandler  Harris. — Joel  Chandler  Harris  (1848-1908) 
used  to  describe  himself  as  a  journalist  who  became  a  liter 
ary  man  by  accident.  Few  accidents  have  been  luckier. 
He  was  born  at  Eatonton,  Putnam  County,  Georgia. 
At  fourteen  he  began  to  set  type  in  a  country  newspaper 
office,  contributing  surreptitiously  to  its  columns,  setting 
his  articles  from  the  case  instead  of  committing  them  to 
paper.  Then  he  studied  law  and  practised  for  a  time  at 
Forsyth,  Georgia,  at  the  same  time  doing  literary  work. 
In  1876,  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Atlanta  Constitution, 
of  which  he  became  editor  in  1890.  To  this  paper  he  con 
tributed  the  beast  stories  collected  in  1881  under  the  title 
of  "  Uncle  Remus:  His  Songs  and  His  Sayings,"  which  have 
ever  since  been  immensely  popular.  Uncle  Remus,  a 


214  The  Nineteenth  Century 

shrewd  and  witty  old  negro,  has  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
stories  of  Brer  Rabbit,  Brer  Fox,  and  the  other  creatures; 
these  "the  little  boy"  and  the  rest  of  us  never  tire  of 
hearing.  The  stories  themselves,  brought  from  Africa  by 
the  negroes,  are  interesting  variant  forms  of  the  great  beast 
epic,  the  classic  example  of  which  is  "  Reynard  the  Fox."1 
They  celebrate  the  victory  of  craft  over  strength,  of 
brain  over  brawn.  Two  other  series  afterward  appeared, 
"Nights  with  Uncle  Remus"  (1883)  and  "Uncle  Remus 
and  His  Friends"  (1892);  and  now  there  is  an  Uncle 
Remus'  Magazine.  Mr.  Harris*  other  books  have  helped  to 
complete  an  admirably  faithful  picture  of  Middle  Georgia 
rural  life  before,  during,  and  after  the  Civil  War.  They 
include  "At  Teague  Poteet's"  (published  in  1883  in  The 
Century),  "  Mingo,  and  Other  Sketches  in  Black  and  White " 
(1884),  "Free  Joe"  (1887),  "Balaam  and  His  Master,  and 
Other  Sketches  and  Stories"  (1891),  in  which  melancholy 
and  pathos  predominate,  "  Aaron  in  the  Wildwoods  "  (1897), 
"Tales  of  the  Home  Folks  in  Peace  and  War"  (1898), 
"The  Chronicles  of  Aunt  Minervy  Ann"  (1899),  "On  the 
Wing  of  Occasions"  (1900).  With  the  single  exception  of 
"Gabriel  Tolliver"  (1902),  which  was  not  successful,  Mr. 
Harris'  constant  work  in  journalism  prevented  him  from 
undertaking  any  long  novel  of  plantation  life;  shorter 
flights  were  better  suited  to  his  ability. 

Maurice  Thompson. — Maurice  Thompson  (1844-1901), 
of  Indiana,  wrote  several  romances.  The  first  three,  deal 
ing  with  Southern  life,  "A  Tallahassee  Girl"  (1882),  "His 
Second  Campaign"  (1883),  and  "At  Love's  Extremes" 
(1885),  were  not  very  successful.  In  "  A  Banker  of  Bankers- 
ville"  (1886)  he  succeeded  better,  giving  a  true  and  fresh 
picture  of  life  in  Indiana.  The  novel  by  which  he  is  best 

1  See  Professor  T.  Frederick  Crane's  study  of  them  in  The  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  April,  1881,  xviii.  824-833. 


The  Novelists  215 

known  is  "Alice  of  Old  Vincennes"  (1901),  a  stirring  tale 
of  French  Indiana  and  the  War  of  Independence.  "  Sweet 
heart  Manette"  (1901)  gives  an  agreeable  sketch  of  life 
in  a  Creole  town  on  the  Gulf  Coast. 

Francis  Marion  Crawford. — "The  most  versatile  and 
various  of  modern  novelists,"  if  Mr.  Andrew  Lang's 
opinion  is  to  be  accepted,  is  Mr.  F.  Marion  Crawford.  Not 
only  has  he  been  prolific  in  a  high  degree,  having  written 
over  thirty  novels,  but  his  scenes  and  characters  have  a 
wide  range  both  in  time  and  in  place.  He  was  born  at 
Bagni  di  Lucca,  Italy,  in  1854,  the  son  of  Thomas  Crawford 
the  sculptor  (who  was  of  Scotch- Irish  parentage)  and 
Louisa  Ward  Crawford,  a  sister  of  Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe. 
Prepared  for  college  at  St.  Paul's  School,  Concord,  New 
Hampshire,  he  entered  Harvard,  but  remained  there  only 
a  short  time.  He  spent  the  years  1870-74  mainly  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1874-76  at  Karlsruhe  and 
Heidelberg,  and  1877-78  at  the  University  of  Rome,  where 
he  studied  Sanskrit.  In  1879  he  went  to  India  and  for 
two  years  was  connected  with  the  Allahabad  Indian 
Herald.  Returning  to  America,  he  spent  two  years  in 
New  York  and  Boston,  continuing  his  Sanskrit  and  Zend 
studies  under  Professor  Lanman  of  Harvard.  No  other 
American  novelist  save  Mr.  James  has  had  so  cosmo 
politan  a  training.  Relating  a  story  of  a  Persian  jewel 
merchant's  adventure  in  India  to  his  uncle,  Samuel  Ward, 
he  was  advised  to  make  a  novel  of  it;  the  result  was  the 
fascinating  "Mr.  Isaacs"  (1882).  Soon  afterward  Mr. 
Crawford  returned  to  Italy,  where,  near  Sorrento,  he  has 
since  lived. 

Mr.  Crawford  has  a  gift  of  rapid  composition,  some 
times  completing  a  novel  in  less  than  a  month;  but  his 
work  as  a  whole  is  markedly  free  from  slovenliness  or 
signs  of  undue  haste.  His  stories  can  be  only  briefly  de 
scribed:  "Dr.  Claudius"  (1883),  a  highly  romantic  old- 


216  The  Nineteenth  Century 

fashioned  love-story  of  a  learned  Heidelberg  Ph.D.; 
"To  Leeward"  (1883),  a  clever  story  of  a  wife's  infidelity 
and  of  Roman  society;  "A  Roman  Singer"  (1884),  the 
story  of  an  Italian  peasant  boy  who  became  a  great  tenor 
and  married  a  German  countess ;  "  An  American  Politician  " 
(1885),  which  deals,  in  the  style  of  Henry  James,  and  with 
indifferent  success,  with  the  corruption  in  American 
politics;  "  Zoroaster"  (1885),  a  strong  romance  written  also 
in  French,  and  brilliantly  treating  of  the  court  of  King 
Darius  and  the  prophet  Daniel;  "A  Tale  of  a  Lonely 
Parish"  (1886),  a  quiet  and  charming  story  of  English 
rural  life;  "Paul  Patoff"  (1887),  "a  tale  and  nothing 
else,"  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  modern  Constantinople; 
"  Marzio's  Crucifix"  (1887,  written  also  in  French),  which 
is  exceptional  among  his  works  in  that  it  portrays  Italian 
lower-  and  middle-class  life,  and  which  is  considered  by 
many  his  best  work;  "  Saracinesca  "  (1887),  "Sanf  Ilario" 
(1889),  "Don  Orsino"  (1892),  and  "Corleone"  (1898), 
four  novels  forming  a  sequence  and  presenting  on  a  broad 
canvas  a  remarkable  picture  of  Roman  society  in  the  last 
third  of  the  nineteenth  century;  ' ' Greif enstein "  (1889), 
a  tragedy  of  the  Black  Forest,  "a  true  story,"  containing 
accurate  descriptions  of  German  student  life ;  "  A  Cigarette- 
Maker's  Romance  "  (1890),  a  perfectly  constructed  romantic 
and  absorbing  story  of  Russian  and  Polish  people  living  in 
Munich;  "Khaled,  a  Romance  of  Arabia"  (1891),  of  which 
a  genie  is  the  hero;  "The  Witch  of  Prague"  (1891),  which 
deals  with  hypnotism,  a  theme  difficult  to  handle  in  fiction ; 
"The  Three  Fates"  (1892),  a  realistic  story  of  New  York 
society  life  and  the  best  of  Mr.  Crawford's  American 
studies;  "Marion  Darche"  (1893),  another  story  of  New 
York  and  of  the  devotion  of  a  forger's  wife;  "The  Chil 
dren  of  the  King"  (1893),  a  melodramatic  story  of  Cala- 
brian  peasant  life;  "Pietro  Ghisleri"  (1893),  in  which  both 
romantic  and  realistic  elements  are  found  and  which 
pictures  the  gay  society  of  Rome;  "Katharine  Lauder- 


The  Novelists  217 

dale"  and  its  sequel  "The  Ralstons"  (1894),  chronicles 
of  a  New  York  family;  "Casa  Braccio"  (1895),  a  melodrama 
of  passion;  "Taquisara"  (1896),  an  unpleasant  story  of 
the  last  representative  of  a  great  Saracen  family  and 
a  princess  of  Acireale;  "Via  Crucis"  (1899),  a  historical 
romance  of  the  Second  Crusade;  "In  the  Palace  of  the 
King"  (1900),  a  tale  of  passion,  the  hero  of  which  is  Don 
John  of  Austria,  and  the  scene  of  which  is  the  court  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain;  "Marietta,  a  Maid  of  Venice"  (1901), 
a  fifteenth-century  story;  "The  Heart  of  Rome"  (1903), 
the  motif  of  which  is  modern  Rome's  treatment  of  its  ar 
tistic  heritage;  "Fair  Margaret"  (1905),  published  in  Lon 
don  as  "Soprano,  a  Portrait,"  recounting  the  fascinating 
career  of  Margaret  Donne,  who  becomes  a  successful  opera 
singer;  "Whosoever  Shall  Offend"  (1905),  an  effective 
story  of  crime;  and  "A  Lady  of  Rome"  (1906,)  a  study  of 
character  moulded  by  strong  religious  belief. 

Of  this  remarkable  series,  the  most  noteworthy,  though 
probably  not  the  most  popular,  are  those  dealing  with 
Italian  life.  Mr.  Crawford  has  been  markedly  successful 
in  his  portraiture  of  Italian  middle-class  life,  and  only  a 
little  less  so  in  writing  of  the  aristocracy.  He  excels  in 
representing  agreeable,  well-bred  men  and  women;  under 
his  touch  they  are  natural,  human,  lifelike.  He  is  fertile 
in  invention  and  lavish  of  characters  and  plot-incident, 
using  in  quite  a  subordinate  connection  materials  which 
other  novelists  would  reserve  for  the  main  plots  of  future 
novels.  In  general,  his  plots  are  skilfully  constructed; 
occasionally,  as  in  "Taquisara"  (which  is  almost  two 
separate  stories),  he  fails  to  weld  his  material  insolubly 
together.  He  has  a  remarkably  bold  and  vigorous  imagina 
tion,  and  does  not  hesitate  to  introduce  daring  conceptions 
and  incidents;  a  romantic  cast  of  mind  is  necessary  if  one 
would  fully  enjoy  him.  A  Roman  Catholic  himself,  he  has 
had  the  amplest  opportunity  for  studying  the  Catholic 
temperament  and  point  of  view,  which  he  interprets 


218  The  Nineteenth  Century 

admirably ;  it  is  natural  that  he  should  be  weakest  in  por 
traying  the  characters  of  unbelievers  or  heretics.  He  is 
always  dispassionate,  calm,  never  losing  himself  in  any 
storm  of  passion.  His  fiction  as  a  whole  is  remarkably 
even,  and  it  cannot  be  affirmed  that  his  latest  work  shows 
deterioration.  For  the  skill  with  which  he  has  utilised 
vast  stores  of  learning,  for  the  effective  though  restrained 
use  of  a  virile  and  picturesque  imagination,  for  "astonish 
ing  literary  tact"  and  breadth  of  view,  Mr.  Crawford  has 
not  his  equal  among  living  American  writers,  and  his 
place  is  among  the  writers  who  only  just  miss  the  first 
rank. 

Frederic  Jesup  Stimson. — Frederic  J.  Stimson,  a  native 
of  Dedham,  Massachusetts  (born  in  1855),  has  led  a  busy 
life  as  lawyer,  legal  writer,  Harvard  professor,  and  novelist. 
His  earlier  novels  were  published  over  the  pen  name  of 
"J.  S.  of  Dale."  He  has  written,  among  others,  "Guern- 
dale"  (1882),  "The  Crime  of  Henry  Vane"  (1884),  the  plot 
of  which  is  unconvincing,  "First  Harvests"  (1888),  "Mrs. 
Knollys  and  Other  Stories"  (1894),  "Pirate  Gold"  (1896), 
"King  Noanett"  (1896),  carefully  worked  out,  an  exciting 
story  of  mystery  and  adventure,  "Jethro  Bacon  of  Sand 
wich"  (1902),  and  "In  Cure  of  Her  Soul"  (1906).  Mr. 
Stimson  has  not  taken  high  rank  as  a  novelist,  but  his  stories 
are  generally  interesting  and  the  later  ones  may  be  com 
mended  to  those  who  are  fond  of  good  romances.  "The 
Weaker  Sex"  (The  Atlantic,  April,  1901)  is  a  powerful  short 
story. 

Henry  Cuykr  Bunner. — Henry  C.  Bunner  (1855-96),  for 
many  years  the  editor  of  Puck,  wrote  many  short  stories  and 
some  good  novels.  He  was  a  native  of  Oswego,  New  York, 
and  received  his  literary  training  in  the  school  of  journalism, 
being  connected  first  with  The  Sun  and  then  with  The 
Arcadian,  a  literary  weekly.  "A  Woman  of  Honor"  (1883) 


The  Novelists  219 

gave  some  promise  in  plot  and  incident.  "Love  in  Old 
Cloathes"  (The  Century,  September,  1883)  brought  him 
a  reputation  as  a  clever  story-teller.  His  next  novel,  "The 
Midge, "  an  ingenious  story  of  the  New  York  French 
quarter,  appeared  in  1886 ;  it  was  followed  by  "The  Story  of 
a  New  York  House"  (1887),  the  somewhat  melancholy  his 
tory  of  a  house,  typifying  the  family  which  occupies  it. 
"Natural  Selection"  appeared  serially  in  Scribner's  (1888). 
"Zadoc  Pine,  and  Other  Stories"  (1891)  are  tales  the 
skilful  construction  of  which  shows  how  carefully  Bunner 
studied  Boccaccio;  while  in  "Short  Sixes  (1891),  his  most 
popular  stories,  he  avowed  his  discipleship  to  Maupassant. 
He  was  more  successful  in  his  short  stories  than  in  his  novels. 

Arthur  Sherburne  Hardy. — Arthur  S.  Hardy  (born  in 
1847  at  Andover,  Mass.),  in  1902-6  United  States  Minister 
Plenipotentiary  at  Madrid,  has  had  a  varied  career.  Grad 
uating  at  West  Point  in  1869,  he  served  for  a  year  in  the 
Third  United  States  Artillery,  then  became  in  succession 
professor  of  civil  engineering,  first  at  Iowa  College,  later 
at  Dartmouth,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Dartmouth, 
editor  of  The  Cosmopolitan,  and  United  States  Minister 
to  Persia,  to  Greece,  Roumania,  and  Servia,  and  to  Switzer 
land.  Well  known  for  several  mathematical  publications, 
he  is  the  author  of  three  novels,  two  of  which  are  distin 
guished  for  happy  description,  graceful  diction,  and  pro 
found  reflection  rather  than  for  individuality  of  plot  or 
able  development  of  character.  "But  Yet  a  Woman" 
(1883)  is  a  story,  somewhat  deficient  in  local  colour,  of 
the  coming  of  love  to  a  French  maiden  destined  for  the 
convent.  "The  Wind  of  Destiny"  (1886)  is  a  story  of  a 
weak  woman  and  two  men  which,  though  it  lacks  dramatic 
interest,  offers  some  compensation  in  "  the  peculiarly  noble 
air  which  pervades  it,  the  extreme  beauty  of  many  of  its 
passages,  the  revelation  of  life  flashed  occasionally  as  from 
a  diamond  of  light,  and  perhaps  more  than  all  for  the  very 


220  The  Nineteenth  Century 

subtle  charm  which  hangs  over  the  whole  movement  of 
the  story."1  "Passe  Rose"  (1889)  is  a  charming  poetical 
romance  of  Provence  in  the  stirring  times  of  Charles  the 
Great,  and  is  decidedly  Mr.  Hardy's  most  successful  novel. 
His  latest  story  is  "  His  Daughter  First "  (1903) .  With  rare 
sympathy,  which  he  makes  no  attempt  to  conceal,  he  has 
interpreted  several  diverse  types,  and  his  men  and  women 
are  alive. 

Mary  Hallock  Foote. — Born  at  Milton-on-the-Hudson, 
New  York,  in  1847,  Mary  Hallock  early  showed  artistic 
talent  and  at  sixteen  began  to  study  design  in  Cooper 
Institute,  New  York  City.  She  was  married  in  1876  to 
Arthur  D.  Foote,  a  Calif ornia  mining  engineer,  and  travelled 
extensively  in  the  Southwest.  Her  varied  experiences 
have  been  utilised  with  marked  literary  skill  in  a  series 
of  stories,  the  first  of  which  was  "The  Led  Horse  Claim" 
(1883),  in  which  the  story  of  Romeo  and  Juliet  was  re 
peated  in  a  California  mining  camp,  though  with  a  happy 
ending.  "The  Chosen  Valley"  (1892)  is  a  study  in  con 
trasts,  recounting  an  episode  in  the  reclaiming  by  irriga 
tion  of  the  waste  lands  of  the  West.  In  1894  appeared 
"  Cceur  d'Alene, "  a  love-story  with  a  background  in  the 
labour  troubles.  She  has  also  written  "John  Bowdoin's 
Testimony"  (1886),  "The  Last  Assembly  Ball"  (1889), 
"In  Exile"  (1894),  and  "The  Cup  of  Trembling"  (1895). 
Her  latest  stories,  "The  Desert  and  the  Sown"  (1902), 
a  study  of  ideal  self-sacrifice,  and  "A  Touch  of  Sun,  and 
Other  Stories"  (1903),  are  hardly  up  to  the  level  of  her 
earlier  work,  which,  in  its  vivid  representation  of  wild  West 
ern  life,  entitles  her  to  a  place  with  Bret  Harte. 

Wolcott  Balestier. — The  promise  of  the  too  short  life 
of  Charles  Wolcott  Balestier  (1861—91)  deserves  record. 
He  was  born  at  Rochester,  New  York,  studied  at  Cornell 

'  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  July,  1886,  Iviii.  133. 


The  Novelists  221 

University  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  became 
first  the  editor  of  Tid-Bits  and  then  the  junior  partner  of 
Heinemann  &  Balestier,  publishers  of  The  English  Library, 
an  attempt  to  popularise  British  and  American  books  on 
the  Continent.  His  interest  in  literature  was  intense,  and 
that  he  would  have  produced  stories  worth  remembering, 
doubtless  in  the  vein  of  Mr.  Howells,  whom  he  greatly 
admired,  is  evidenced  by  his  few  published  works:  "A 
Patent  Philtre"  (1884),  "A  Fair  Device"  (1884),  "A  Vic 
torious  Defeat"  (1886),  "  A  Common  Story"  (1891),  "The 
Average  Woman"  (1892),  three  stories,  with  a  memorial 
note  by  Henry  James,  and  "Benefits  Forgot"  (1891),  first 
published  serially  in  The  Century.  With  Mr.  Kipling,  his 
brother-in-law,  he  collaborated  in  "The  Naulahka"  (1892). 

Robert  Grant. — Born  in  Boston  (1852),  Robert  Grant 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1873  and  became  Ph.D.  in 
1876  and  LL.B.  in  1879.  He  has  followed  law  and  letters 
side  by  side.  In  1893  be  was  appointed  Judge  of  the 
Probate  Court  and  the  Court  of  Insolvency  for  Suffolk 
County,  Massachusetts.  He  has  written,  among  other 
things,  "The  Confessions  of  a  Frivolous  Girl"  (1880),  "An 
Average  Man"  (1884),  "The  Knave  of  Hearts"  (1886), 
"The  Reflections  of  a  Married  Man"  (1892),  "The  Opin 
ions  of  a  Philosopher"  (1893),  "The  Bachelor's  Christ 
mas,  and  Other  Stories"  (1895),  and  "Unleavened  Bread" 
(1900),  his  best  known  and  most  powerful  story.  Mr. 
Grant  is  a  trenchant  satirist  of  the  foibles  of  cer 
tain  aspirants  to  social  prominence.  Selma,  in  "  Unleav 
ened  Bread,"  is  a  veritable  incarnation  of  ignoble  social 
ambition. 

Henry  Harland. — Henry  Harland  (1861-1905)  was  born 
in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  and  was  educated  at  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  Harvard,  Paris,  and  Rome.  In 
1886  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  became  well  known 


222  The  Nineteenth  Century 

as  the  editor  of  The  Yellow  Book.  His  earlier  stories,  in 
cluding  "As  It  Was  Written"  (1885),  a  musician's  story, 
"Mrs.  Peixada"  (1886),  "The  Land  of  Love"  (1887),  "My 
Uncle  Florimond"  (1888),  and  others,  were  published  as 
by  "Sidney  Luska";  they  circulated  widely  but  were  later 
condemned  by  Harland  himself  as  trashy.  He  later  wrote 
"Mea  Culpa"  (1893),  "Comedies  and  Errors"  (1898),  "The 
Cardinal's  Snuff-Box"  (1900),  which  scored  a  decided  suc 
cess,  and  "My  Lady  Paramount"  (1902).  His  brilliance 
and  geniality  are  reflected  in  his  works,  but  his  vein  was 
not  an  extensive  one. 

Thomas  Nelson  Page. — One  of  the  leading  novelists 
of  the  South  to-day  is  Thomas  Nelson  Page.  Born  in  1853 
at  Oakland,  Virginia,  he  studied  (1869-72)  at  Washington 
and  Lee  University  and  (1873-74)  at  the  University  of 
Virginia.  After  practising  law  for  some  years,  he  turned, 
like  many  other  laywers,  to  literature.  "Marse  Chan" 
(The  Century,  April,  1884)  met  with  great  favour,  and  was 
followed  by  other  short  stories,  which  were  collected  in 
1887  under  the  title  "In  Ole  Virginia."  The  life  in  Vir 
ginia  before  and  during  the  war  was  further  presented  in 
"  Two  Little  Confederates"  (1888),  "  On  New  Found  River" 
(1891),  "Elsket,  and  Other  Stories"  (1891),  "The  Burial 
of  the  Guns,  and  Other  Stories"  (1894),  "Red  Rock,  a 
Chronicle  of  Reconstruction"  (1898),  "The  Old  Gentle 
man  of  the  Black  Stock"  (1900),  and  "Gordon  Keith" 
(1903).  Mr.  Page  has  a  strong  affection  for  the  Old  South, 
and  vividly  and  powerfully  delineates  the  life  of  the  aristo 
cracy  and  the  negroes.  WThile  sympathetic,  his  descrip 
tions  of  the  system  of  slavery  are  free  from  bitterness  and 
are  entitled  to  consideration  as  truthful  and  convincing. 
Probably  he  has  never  surpassed  his  earlier  short  stories, 
which  exhibit  most  distinctively  the  charm  of  his  style; 
but  "  Red  Rock, "  at  least,  has  demonstrated  his  ability 
to  write  successfully  also  on  a  larger  scale. 


The  Novelists  223 

Thomas  Allibone  Janvier. — Thomas  A.  Janvier  (born  in 
1849),  a  native  of  Philadelphia,  became  a  New  York  jour 
nalist  and  then  a  writer  of  stories.  He  has  been  especially 
successful  in  depicting  the  Bohemian  life  of  the  metropolis. 
His  "Color  Studies:  Four  Stories"  (1885),  reprinted  from 
The  Century,  narrate  the  struggles  of  a  painter  in  New  York ; 
though  slight,  they  are  realistic  and  agreeable.  Having 
made  an  exhaustive  study  of  Mexico,  he  put  his  knowl 
edge  to  good  use  in  "  The  Aztec  Treasure  House:  a  Romance 
of  Contemporaneous  Antiquity"  (1890),  a  successful  ro 
mantic  novel  dealing  with  a  legend  of  buried  treasure  and 
a  story  of  wholesome  flavour  and  sustained  interest.  He 
has  also  written  "Stories  of  Old  New  Spain"  (1895)  and 
several  others. 

Some  New  England  Women. — Here  may  be  grouped 
several  gifted  daughters  of  the  Puritans,  some  of  whom 
deserve  more  space  than  can  be  given  them.  Mrs.  Jane 
Goodwin  Austin  (1831-94)  wrote  several  readable  historical 
romances  of  colonial  New  England.  Among  her  works 
are  "A  Nameless  Nobleman"  (1881),  "Dr.  Le  Baron  and 
His  Daughters"  (1890),  sequel  to  the  first,  "Standish  of 
Standish"  (1889),  and  "David  Alden's  Daughter  and  Other 
Stories"  (1892). 

Mrs.  Rose  Terry  Cooke  (1827-92),  a  native  of  Con 
necticut,  was  known  as  a  poet  for  many  years  before  she 
began  to  write  short  stories.  She  published  the  following 
collections:  "Happy  Dodd"  (1879),  "Somebody's  Neigh 
bours"  (1881),  "Root-Bound"  (1885),  "The  Sphinx's  Chil 
dren"  (1886),  and  "Huckleberries  Gathered  from  New 
England  Hills"  (1891).  "The  Deacon's  Week"  (1884) 
m^y  count  as  her  best  story.  In  all  her  stories  the  humours 
of  New  England  Yankee  character  are  set  forth  with  vigour 
and  relish.  She  wrote  a  single  novel,  "Steadfast,  the  Story 
of  a  Saint  and  a  Sinner  "  (1889),  dealing  with  early  New  Eng 
land  church  life,  and  ranking  much  above  the  average  novel. 


224  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Mrs.  Annie  Trumbull  Slosson,  likewise  of  Connecticut, 
has  shown  skill  in  dialect  stories,  of  which  "  Fishin'  Jimmy  " 
(1889),  ''Seven  Dreamers"  (1890),  "The  Heresy  of  Mehet- 
abel  Clark"  (1892),  and  "Dumb  Foxglove,  and  Other 
Stories"  (1898)  may  be  mentioned.  The  grotesque  ele 
ments  of  New  England  life  especially  appeal  to  her. 

Mrs.  Clara  Louise  Burnham  (born  at  Newton,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1854)  has  lived  in  Chicago  since  childhood, 
but  is  fond  of  locating  her  scenes  in  New  England.  She 
has  written  many  stories,  among  them  "No  Gentleman" 
(1881),  "A  Sane  Lunatic"  (1882),  "Dearly  Bought" 
(1884),  "Next  Door"  (1886),  "Young  Maids  and  Old" 
(1888),  "Miss  Bagg's  Secretary"  (1892),  "Dr.  Latimer" 
(1893),  "The  Wise  Woman"  (1895),  "A  West  Point  Woo 
ing"  (1899),  and  "The  Right  Princess"  (1902). 

Alice  Brown  (born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1857),  after 
teaching  school  for  several  years,  devoted  herself  to  litera 
ture,  and  is  now  a  member  of  the  staff  of  The  Youth's 
Companion.  She  has  written  "Fools  of  Nature"  (1887), 
"Meadow-Grass"  (1895),  short  tales  of  New  England 
village  life,  "The  Day  of  His  Youth"  (1897),  a  story  of 
disillusionment,  "Tiverton  Tales"  (1899),  "King's  End" 
(1901),  "Margaret  Warrener"  (1901),  "The  Mannerings'' 
(1903),  and  "High  Noon"  (1904).  Her  stories  are  skil 
fully  constructed,  and  she  writes  with  commendable  re 
straint  and  dignity. 

Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman. — The  more  sombre  and  less 
attractive  aspects  of  New  England  village  and  country 
life  have  been  presented  with  great  success  in  the  numerous 
stories  of  Mary  E.  Wilkins  (since  1902  Mrs.  Charles  M. 
Freeman).  Born  at  Randolph,  Massachusetts,  in  1862, 
she  was  educated  at  Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary,  South  Had- 
ley,  Mass.  Her  stories  include  "The  Adventures  of  Ann" 
(1886),  "A  Humble  Romance"  (1887),  "A  New  England 
Nun,  and  Other  Stories"  (1891),  "Jane  Field"  (1892), 


The  Novelists  225 

her  first  novel,  "Pembroke"  (1894),  generally  considered 
her  greatest  work,  and  distinguished  for  beauty  of  style 
and  truthful  and  delicate  character-drawing,  "Madelon" 
(1896),  "Jerome,  a  Poor  Man"  (1897),  by  some  ranked 
higher  than  "Pembroke"  in  that  it  has  a  stronger  central 
interest,  "Silence  and  Other  Stories"  (1898),  which  in 
cludes  some  of  her  best  work,  especially  "Evelina's  Gar 
den,"  one  of  her  most  artistic  tales,  "The  Love  of  Parson 
Lord"  (1900),  "The  Heart's  Highway"  (1900),  a  historical 
romance  of  Virginia  in  1682,  "The  Portion  of  Labour" 
(1901),  "Understudies"  (1901),  "Six  Trees"  (1903), 
"The  Wind  in  the  Rose  Bush"  (1903),  "The  Givers," 
eight  stories  (1904),  and  several  magazine  stories.  Her 
place  is  easily  in  the  first  rank  of  those  who  have  delin 
eated  New  England  life. 

Harold  Frederic. — Harold  Frederic  (1856-98)  wrote  a  num 
ber  of  realistic  stories,  chiefly  of  country  life  in  New  York. 
A  native  of  Utica,  in  that  State,  he  began  his  career  as 
proof-reader;  at  twenty-six  he  was  editor  of  the  Albany 
Evening  Journal,  and  in  1884  he  took  charge  of  the  foreign 
bureau  of  the  New  York  Times,  with  headquarters  in  Lon 
don.  "Seth's  Brother's  Wife"  (1887),  first  published  serially 
in  Scribner's,  minutely  describes  the  prosaic  round  of 
farming  life  and  country  journalism  and  elections.  "The 
Lawton  Girl"  (1890)  gives  us  the  turmoil  of  a  small  manu 
facturing  town.  "In  the  Valley"  (1890)  is  a  Mohawk 
Dutchman's  story  of  the  Revolutionary  struggle.  "The 
Copperhead,  and  Other  Stories  of  the  North"  (1893)  and 
"Marse"na,  and  Other  Stories"  (1894)  are  collections  of 
Civil  War  stories,  vigorous  and  daring.  His  best  stories 
are  "The  Damnation  of  Theron  Ware"  (1896,  published 
in  England  as  "Illumination"),  an  absorbing  study  of  the 
intellectual  career  of  an  earnest  but  narrow  young  Metho 
dist  minister  and  of  the  struggle  of  two  religious  ideals  in 
his  life,  and  "The  Market-Place"  (1899),  a  thoroughgoing 
15 


226  The  Nineteenth  Century 

study  of  the  London  Stock  Exchange.     His  untimely  death 
cut  short  a  career  of  notable  achievement  and  great  promise. 

Archibald  Clavering  Gunter. — Archibald  Clavering  Gunter 
(1847—1907),  a  native  of  Liverpool  who  became  a  California 
mining  and  civil  engineer,  chemist,  and  stock-broker,  at 
forty  began  to  write  novels  which  violated  most  of  the 
literary  canons,  but  which  in  plot  and  incident  were  of 
absorbing  interest.  It  was  his  avowed  rule  to  make  some 
thing  happen  in  every  five  hundred  words.  This  explains 
why  a  million  copies  of  his  first  novel,  "Mr.  Barnes  of  New 
York"  (1887),  have  been  sold.  He  wrote  thirty-nine  novels 
in  all,  the  best  of  which,  in  addition  to  his  first,  are  "Mr. 
Potter  of  Texas"  (1888),  "That  Frenchman"  (1889), 
"Jack  Curzon"  (1899),  and  "A  Manufacturer's  Daughter" 
(1901).  He  also  became  well  known  as  a  playwright. 

Octave  Thanet. — Octave  Thanet  is  the  well  known  pen 
name  of  Alice  French  (born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in 
1850),  who  has  achieved  enviable  success  in  her  short  stories 
of  life  in  Iowa  and  Arkansas,  a  field  in  which  she  has  few 
rivals.  These  stories  include  "Knitters  in  the  Sun "  (1887) , 
"Expiation"  (1890),  vigorous,  truly  coloured,  and  accurate 
in  details,  "Stories  of  a  Western  Town"  (1893),  Iowa 
sketches,  "The  Missionary  Sheriff"  (1897),  and  "The 
Heart  of  Toil"  (1898),  full  of  the  pathos  of  an  unequal 
struggle  with  economic  forces.  Miss  French  writes  sym 
pathetically,  with  her  eyes  on  the  men  and  women  who 
furnish  her  with  characters. 

Margaret  Deland. — One  of  the  most  popular  of  Irving 
novelists,  and  justly  so,  is  Mrs.  Margaret  Deland.  Born 
Margaretta  Campbell,  in  1857,  in  Manchester,  now  a  part 
of  Allegheny,  Pennsylvania,  then  a  village  "of  dignified 
houses,  pleasant  gardens,  and  meadows  sloping  to  a  pic 
turesque  river, "  she  was  left  an  orphan  at  three  and  was 


The  Novelists  227 

cared  for  by  an  aunt.  At  sixteen,  like  Mrs.  Foote,  she 
entered  a  class  in  drawing  and  design  in  Cooper  Institute, 
New  York;  she  graduated  at  the  head  of  her  class,  and 
won  an  appointment  as  instructor  in  design  in  the  Girls' 
Normal  College,  a  post  which  she  filled  till  1880.  Then 
she  was  married  to  Mr.  Lorin  F.  D eland  and  went  to 
Boston.  Eight  years  later  appeared  her  first  novel,  "John 
Ward,  Preacher."  It  is  the  story  of  the  conflict  of  rigid 
Calvinism  and  modern  liberalism,  and  it  has  been  com 
pared  with  Mrs.  Ward's  "Robert  Elsmere. "  Two  love- 
stories,  one  of  which  recalls  Mrs.  Gaskell's  "Cranford, " 
relieve  the  tragic  gloom  of  the  narrative.  Ashurst  is  an 
idealised  Manchester.  In  "Sidney"  (1890)  the  author 
studies  the  question  of  the  value  of  mortal  sexual  love; 
the  problems  of  faith  and  doubt  also  recur.  "The  Story 
of  a  Child"  (1892)  delineates  an  uncontrolled  imagination. 
"Mr.  Tommy  Dove,  and  Other  Stories"  (1893)  is  a  col 
lection  including  typical  humour  and  pathos.  "Philip  and 
His  Wife"  (1894)  has  to  do  with  an  unhappy  marriage. 
Her  recent  stories  are  "The  Wisdom  of  Fools"  (1898), 
"Old  Chester  Tales"  (1899),  "Dr.  Lavendar's  People" 
(1904),  and  "The  Awakening  of  Helena  Richie"  (1906). 
Big-hearted,  shrewd  Dr.  Lavendar,  who  figures  in  her  last 
two  stories,  is  one  of  the  most  lovable  characters  in  Ameri 
can  fiction ;  and  her  latest  books  show  a  distinctly  stronger 
grasp  of  life  and  greater  narrative  power. 

Mrs.  Mary  Hartwell  Caiherwood. — Mary  Hartwell  Cather- 
wood  (1847-1902)  made  a  name  for  herself  with  some  very 
successful  historical  romances  of  the  French  and  Indian 
Wars  and  French  Canadian  and  early  Illinois  life.  "The 
Romance  of  Dollard"  (1889),  "The  Lady  of  Fort  St.  John" 
(1891),  "The  White  Islander"  (1893),  and  "The  Chase  of 
Saint  Castin,  and  Other  Stories"  (1894)  are  spirited  narra 
tives  of  battle  and  siege,  of  intrigue  and  jealousy,  in  which 
bold  and  noble  characters  play  their  parts  well,  and  which 


228  The  Nineteenth  Century 

contain  vivid  descriptions  of  scenery — in  sunshine  and 
storm.  Of  the  early  Middle  West  she  wrote  "Old  Kas- 
kaskia"  (1893),  "The  Spirit  of  an  Illinois  Town"  (1897), 
"Little  Renault"  (1897),  "Spanish  Peggy"  (1899),  "The 
Queen  of  the  Swamp,  and  Other  Plain  Americans"  (1899), 
and  "Lazarre"  (1901). 

Rowland  E.  Robinson. — The  dialect  and  manners  of 
Vermont  are  reproduced  with  remarkable  fidelity  by  Row 
land  E.  Robinson  (1833-1900)  in  "Sam  Level's  Camps" 
(1889),  "Danvis  Folks"  (1894),  and  "Uncle  'Lisha's  Shop" 
(1897).  These  stories  are  among  our  most  valuable  tran 
scripts  of  the  life  of  Northern  New  England. 

Francis  Hopkinson  Smith. — F.  Hopkinson  Smith  (born 
in  Baltimore,  1838)  had  a  varied  career  before  he  essayed 
the  novel,  at  fifty-three.  He  began  life  as  a  clerk  in  some 
iron  works ;  then,  becoming  an  engineer  and  contractor,  he 
took  to  building  sea-walls  and  lighthouses,  and  afterwards 
became  well  known  as  an  artist.  In  "Colonel  Carter  of 
Cartersville  "  (1891)  he  drew  an  alluring  picture  of  the  old 
regime  in  the  South.  "A  Gentleman  Vagabond,  and  Some 
Others"  (1895)  are  varied  character  stories.  "Tom 
Grogan"  (1896)  and  "Caleb  West,  Master  Diver"  (1898) 
draw  upon  Mr.  Smith's  engineering  experiences.  He 
has  also  written  "The  Other  Fellow"  (1899),  "The  For 
tunes  of  Oliver  Horn"  (1902),  "The  Under  Dog"  (1903), 
"Colonel  Carter's  Christmas"  (1904),  "At  Close  Range" 
(1905),  and  "The  Wood  Fire  in  No.  3"  (1905).  If  some 
of  his  persons  are  conventional  and  indistinct,  others  stand 
out  as  skilfully  characterised  and  permanent  figures  in  his 
literary  gallery. 

James  Lane  Allen. — James  Lane  Allen  has  done  for 
Kentucky  what  Mr.  Page  has  done  for  Old  Virginia  and 
Miss  Murfree  for  the  Tennessee  mountaineers.  A  native 


The  Novelists  229 

of  Kentucky  (born  in  1849),  ne  graduated  from  Transyl 
vania  University,  at  Lexington,  Kentucky,  and  taught  in 
schools  and  colleges  for  some  years.  Since  1884,  however, 
he  has  devoted  himself  to  literary  work.  Besides  writing 
much  for  magazines  he  has  published  "Flute  and  Violin, 
and  Other  Kentucky  Tales  and  Romances"  (1891),  "The 
Blue  Grass  Region,  and  Other  Sketches"  (1892),  "John 
Gray"  (1893),  rewritten  and  enlarged  into  "The  Choir 
Invisible"  (1897),  "A  Kentucky  Cardinal"  (1894)  and  its 
sequel  "Aftermath"  (1895),  "Summer  in  Arcady"  (1896), 
"The  Reign  of  Law"  (1900),  published  in  England  as  "The 
Increasing  Purpose,"  and  "The  Mettle  of  the  Pasture" 
(1903).  A  tendency  toward  didacticism  and  a  lack  of 
spontaneity  mar  the  latest  works  of  Mr.  Allen ;  he  is  at  his 
best  in  his  earlier  works,  in  which  he  revels  in  the  beauty 
of  the  Blue  Grass  region  and  writes  in  the  spirit  of  a 
disciple  of  Thoreau  and  Audubon.  The  romanticist  in  him 
was  gradually  transformed  into  the  objective  realist.  Yet 
in  all  his  work  there  are  elements  of  strength  and  poetic 
beauty.  By  a  curious  coincidence  another  Kentucky 
James  Lane  Allen  (born  in  1848)  a  graduate  of  Bethany 
College,  in  which  the  first  Mr.  Allen  taught,  and  now  a 
Chicago  lawyer,  has  also  written  numerous  magazine 
sketches  and  stories. 

Hamlin  Garland. — The  grim,  dull  life  of  the  hard- 
worked  farmer  in  the  Middle  West  has  been  effectively 
recorded  by  Hamlin  Garland.  A  native  of  La  Crosse, 
Wisconsin  (born  in  1860),  Mr.  Garland  saw  at  close  range 
the  life  he  was  to  describe,  in  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Dakota. 
His  first  book  was  a  collection  of  six  realistic  stories, 
"Main-Travelled  Roads"  (1891),  which  gave  him  a  re 
putation,  and  he  has  continued  to  write  in  similar  vein, 
publishing  "Prairie  Folks"  (1892),  "A  Little  Norsk,  or 
Ol'  Pap's  Flaxen"  (1892),  "A  Spoil  of  Office"  (1892), 
"Rose  of  Butcher's  Coolly"  (1895),  his  best  novel,  "The 


230  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Eagle's  Heart"  (1900),  "Her  Mountain  Lover"  (1901), 
and  ''Money  Magic"  (1907).  Mr.  Garland  has  for  the 
most  part  wisely  obeyed  his  own  dictum,  to  write  only  of 
what  one  knows;  and  his  later  work  shows  a  notable  in 
crease  in  vigour  and  grasp  of  the  story-teller's  art. 

Henry  Blake  Fuller. — Henry  B.  Fuller  (born  in  Chicago, 
1857)  was  intended  for  a  mercantile  career,  but  preferred 
literature.  "The  Chevalier  of  Pensieri-Vani "  (1890),  first 
published  anonymously,  was  praised  by  Lowell  and  Nor 
ton.  In  1892  appeared  "The  Chatelaine  of  La  Trinite*. " 
In  "The  Cliff-Dwellers"  (1893),  he  turned  from  the  romantic 
to  a  sure  realism  in  a  story  of  Chicago  life.  "With  the 
Procession"  followed  in  1895,  being  in  similar  vein.  These 
stories  show  skill  in  individualisation,  intense  earnestness, 
facility,  and  ability  to  make  an  old  theme  interesting.  "  His 
picture,"  says  Mr.  Whibley,  "is  never  overcharged;  his 
draughtsmanship  is  always  sincere.  " 

Stephen  Crane  and  Frank  N orris. — Stephen  Crane  (1870- 
1900),  born  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  educated  at 
Lafayette  College  and  Syracuse  University,  first  entered 
journalism  and  won  some  distinction  as  a  war  correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Journal.  His  first  story,  dealing  with 
slum  life,  was  "Maggie,  a  Girl  of  the  Streets"  (1891), 
which,  as  Mr.  Howells  thinks,  remains  his  best  work. 
"The  Red  Badge  of  Courage"  (1895),  a  thoroughly  realistic 
study  of  the  mind  of  a  soldier  in  action  at  the  battle  of 
Chancellors ville,  was  altogether  a  remarkable  achievement; 
it  took  the  public  by  storm  and  brought  the  author  a 
wide  reputation,  which  was  not  sustained  by  his  later  work. 
He  also  wrote  "George's  Mother"  (1896),  another  slum 
story,  "The  Little  Regiment"  (1896),  "Active  Service" 
(1899),  "The  Monster,  and  Other  Stories"  (1899);  and  two 
collections  of  stories,  "Wounds  in  the  Rain"  and  " Whilom- 
ville  Stories"  (1900),  tales  of  child  life,  which  were  pub- 


The  Novelists  231 

lished  posthumously.  His  impressionism,  though  at  times 
too  little  restrained,  was  often  effective,  and  his  highly 
coloured  stories  have  found  many  admiring  readers. 

In  the  death  of  Frank  Norris  (1870-1902),  another 
promising  career  was  cut  short.  Norris  managed  to  see 
a  good  deal  of  life.  Born  in  Chicago,  he  studied  art  in 
Paris  (1887-89)  and  literature  at  the  University  of  Cali 
fornia  and  Harvard.  Like  Crane  he  became  a  journalist. 
At  the  time  of  the  Jameson  Raid  in  South  Africa  he  was 
the  South  African  correspondent  for  a  San  Francisco 
paper  and  in  1898  did  similar  work  in  Cuba.  He  began 
publishing  fiction  as  early  as  1891  ("  Yberville"),  but  it 
was  not  till  1899  that  he  became  well  known  for  "Mc- 
Teague. "  His  later  stories  were  thoroughly  realistic.  With 
"The  Octopus"  (1901)  he  began  a  trilogy  which  should 
form  "an  epic  of  the  wheat."  In  the  first  novel  is  des 
cribed  the  growth  of  the  wheat  and  the  oppressive  railroad 
monopoly  encountered  in  its  transportation.  "The  Pit" 
(1903)  deals  with  the  battles  of  the  wheat  speculators. 
"The  Wolf,  "  unfinished,  was  to  have  dealt  with  the  struggle 
for  bread  in  a  European  famine-stricken  community. 
"The  story  of  the  wheat  was  for  him, "  as  Mr.  Howells  puts 
it,  "the  allegory  of  the  industrial  and  financial  America 
which  is  the  real  America. "  The  largeness  of  the  scope 
of  his  undertaking  and  the  robust  courage  and  confidence 
with  which  he  attacked  it  deserve  our  admiration.  What 
he  accomplished  shows  that  he  would  have  been  equal  to 
his  task. 

Mrs.  Ruth  McEnery  Stuart. — Mrs.  Stuart  has  written 
highly  amusing  stories  of  negro  life  in  the  South.  Born 
in  the  parish  of  Avoyelles,  Louisiana,  she  was  married  in 
1879  to  Alfred  0.  Stuart,  a  cotton  planter.  Since  1885  she 
has  lived  in  New  York.  Her  stories  include  "The  Golden 
Wedding,  and  Other  Tales"  (1893),  "Carlotta's  Intended" 
(1894),  "The  Story  of  Babette"  (1894),  "Moriah's  Mourn- 


232  The  Nineteenth  Century 

ing"  (1898),  "Sonny"  (1896),  "Holly  and  Pizen"  (1899), 
"The  Woman's  Exchange"  (1899),  and  "River's  Children" 
(1905).  Writing  in  a  natural  and  witty  style,  she  has 
brought  out  with  great  skill  the  humour  and  pathos  of  the 
old  plantation.  She  is  a  favourite  contributor  to  the 
magazines. 

Paul  Leicester  Ford. — Paul  Leicester  Ford  (1865-1902), 
whose  most  serious  and  permanently  valuable  work  was 
done  in  the  field  of  American  history,  was  the  author  of 
some  notable  works  of  fiction.  "The  Honourable  Peter 
Sterling  and  What  People  Thought  of  Him"  (1894)  intro 
duces  an  ideally  noble  statesman  whose  integrity  triumphs 
over  the  sordid  corruption  of  politics.  Some  points  in  the 
book  are  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  career  of 
President  Cleveland.  "Janice  Meredith"  (1899)  is  a  sen 
timental  romance  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  in  which  a 
fascinating  love-story  is  projected  on  an  accurate  historical 
background.  Of  less  importance,  but  still  most  readable, 
are  "The  Great  K.  &  A.  Train  Robbery"  (1897)  and  "The 
Story  of  an  Untold  Love"  (1897). 

Edward  Noyes  Westcott. — Edward  N.  Westcott  (1847- 
98),  a  banker  of  Syracuse,  New  York,  was  the  author  of  a 
single  book,  which  he  was  unable  to  get  published  in  his 
lifetime,  but  which  gave  him  posthumous  fame.  The  hero 
of  "David  Harum"  (1898)  is  a  shrewd  Central  New  York 
Yankee,  a  son  of  the  soil  who  with  characteristic  energy 
rose  to  be  a  banker  and  successful  man  of  affairs,  and  who 
retained  all  his  amusing  traits,  including  a  weakness  for 
trading  horses — "an  optimist  who  has  wrung  from  the 
harsh  conditions  of  life  all  that  it  can  yield. "  The  other 
characters  are  rather  wooden,  but  the  delineation  of  David 
Harum  is  strong,  vital,  and  hence  lasting.  The  plot  is 
weak,  but  the  story  is  true  to  the  phases  of  life  it 
depicts. 


The  Novelists  233 

The  Younger  Generation. — Space  forbids  more  than  a 
mention  of  some  of  the  .other  living  writers.  Owen  Wister 
(born  in  Philadelphia,  1860)  has  become  well  known 
through  ''The  Dragon  of  Wantley:  His  Tail"  (1892)  and 
"The  Virginian"  (1902),  in  which  latter  we  have  an  ex 
citing  story  of  a  Wyoming  cowboy.  The  much-travelled 
Richard  Harding  Davis  (also  a  Philadelphian,  born  in 
1864)  has  written  racy  and  characteristically  humorous 
stories  of  New  York  club  and  street  life  in  "Gallegher, 
and  Other  Stories"  (1891),  "Van  Bibber,  and  Others" 
(1892),  and  "Episodes  in  Van  Bibber's  Life"  (1899).  Of 
his  other  stories  the  best  known  are  "The  Princess  Aline" 
(1895),  "Soldiers  of  Fortune"  (1897),  in  which  a  South 
American  revolution  figures  prominently,  "In  the  Fog" 
(1901),  a  clever  London  tale,  "  Ranson's  Folly"  (1902), 
and  "The  Bar  Sinister"  (1904).  Robert  W.  Chambers 
(born  in  Brooklyn,  1865)  is  well  known  both  as  an  artist 
and  a  romancer,  a  weaver  of  strange  and  exciting  plots. 
Among  his  best  books  are  "The  Red  Republic"  (1894), 
"  A  King  and  a  Few  Dukes"  (1894),  "  The  Haunts  of  Men" 
(1898),  stories  of  American  or  Canadian  life,  "The  Cambric 
Mask"  (1899),  "A  Gay  Conspiracy"  (1900),  which  shows 
the  influence  of  Anthony  Hope's  "Prisoner  of  Zenda, " 
"Cardigan"  (1901),  and  "  lole"  (1905).  Newton  Booth  Tar k- 
ington  (born  in  1869  in  Indianapolis,  a  graduate  of  Prince 
ton)  won  fame  in  1899  with  "  The  Gentleman  from  Indiana  " 
and  has  followed  this  with  "Monsieur  Beaucaire"  (1900), 
a  romance  laid  in  Bath  in  the  eighteenth  century,  "The 
Two  Vanrevels"  (1902),  "Cherry"  (1903),  "In  the  Arena" 
(1905),  "The  Conquest  of  Canaan"  (1905),  and  "The 
Beautiful  Lady"  (1905).  His  later  work  shows  a  gain  in 
power.  Winston  Churchill  (born  in  1871),  a  graduate 
of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  and  now  a  resident 
of  New  Hampshire,  published  "The  Celebrity"  in  1898. 
"  Richard  Carvel"  (1899)  made  him  famous;  it  is  a  Revolu 
tionary  story  of  Maryland  and  London.  He  has  since 


234  The  Nineteenth  Century 

written  "The  Crisis"  (1901),  a  substantial  story  of  the 
Civil  War,  "Mr.  Keegan's  Elopement"  (1903),  "The 
Crossing"  (1904),  and  "Coniston"  (1906),  a  New  England 
story  of  love  and  politics.  The  mountaineer  life  of  Ken 
tucky  furnishes  John  Fox,  Jr.,  with  the  materials  for  his 
well  told  stories,  "A  Cumberland  Vendetta,  and  Other 
Stories"  (1896),  "The  Kentuckians"  (1897),  "The  Little 
Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come"  (1903),  and  "A  Knight  of 
the  Cumberland"  (1906). 

Mrs.  Gertrude  Franklin  Atherton  (born  in  San  Fran 
cisco,  1857)  has  made  a  wide  reputation  with  her  stories 
of  early  California  life;  some  critics  declare,  however,  that 
they  do  not  accurately  represent  the  California  of  old 
days.  The  first  of  them  was  "The  Doomswoman"  (1892). 
Other  novels  are  "A  Whirl  Asunder"  (1895),  "Patience 
Sparhawk  and  Her  Times"  (1897),  "The  Calif ornian s " 
(1898),  "American  Wives  and  English  Husbands"  (1898), 
and  "The  Conqueror"  (1902),  which  is  based  on  the  life 
of  Alexander  Hamilton.  Mrs.  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin  (born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1857  and  married  to  Samuel  B.  Wiggin 
in  1880)  has  written  charming  juvenile  stories,  "The  Birds' 
Christmas  Carol"  (1888),  "The  Story  of  Patsy"  (1889),  and 
"Timothy's  Quest"  (1890),  besides  some  stories  of  travel, 
such  as  "A  Cathedral  Courtship"  (1893)  and  "Penelope's 
Progress"  (1898).  Her  husband  died  in  1889,  and  in 
1895  she  was  married  to  George  C.  Riggs. 

Irving  Bacheller  (born  in  1859),  a  New  York  journalist, 
attracted  attention  by  his  stories,  "The  Master  of  Silence" 
(1890)  and  "The  Still  House  of  O'Darrow"  (1894).  His 
"  Eben  Holden"  (1900),  a  novel  of  northern  New  York, 
was  very  successful.  He  has  since  written  "  Barrel  of  the 
Blessed  Isles"  (1903)  and  "Vergilius"  (1904).  Robert 
Herrick  (born  in  1868),  a  Harvard  graduate  and  now  a 
Chicago  University  professor,  has  written  searching  studies 
of  American  society  in  "The  Gospel  of  Freedom"  (1898), 
"The  Web  of  Life"  (1900),  "The  Real  World"  (1901), 


The  Novelists  235 

and  "The  Common  Lot"  (1904).  He  is  something  of  a 
pessimist,  but  not  unwholesome. 

Edith  Wharton  (born  in  New  York  in  1862)  began  her 
literary  career  with  short  stories  of  the  metropolitan  society 
with  which  she  had  been  familiar  from  birth:  "The  Greater 
Inclination"  (1899),  eight  stories,  "A  Gift  from  the  Grave" 
(1900),  and  "Crucial  Instances"  (1901).  In  "The  Valley 
of  Decision"  (1902),  "Sanctuary"  (1903),  and  "The 
House  of  Mirth"  (1905),  she  deals  with  scenes  and  char 
acters  of  deep  human  interest  but  not  easily  managed ;  and 
she  acquits  herself  with  credit.  Lily  Bart  is  distinctly 
individualised  and  is  worthy  to  be  compared  with  Becky 
Sharp  and  Gwendolen  Harleth. 

Upton  Sinclair  (born  in  Baltimore,  1878),  after  writing 
a  number  of  novels,  produced  in  "Manassas"  (1904)  a 
thrilling  romantic  novel  of  the  years  just  preceding  the 
Civil  War.  "The  Jungle"  (1906),  though  much  better 
known,  is  artistically  far  inferior  to  it.  The  creed  of 
socialism  is  professed  by  both  Mr.  Sinclair  and  Jack  Lon 
don  (born  in  San  Francisco  in  1876).  London  left  the 
University  of  California  to  go  to  the  Klondike,  afterward 
went  to  Japan,  and  has  since  tramped  through  America 
and  Canada  for  sociological  study.  In  his  best  works, 
"The  Son  of  the  Wolf"  (1900),  "The  Call  of  the  Wild" 
(1903),  and  "The  Sea  Wolf"  (1904),  he  has  chosen  to 
depict  the  tragedies  of  the  animal  world  and  the  elemental 
passions  in  man. 

Three  Virginia  women  novelists  have  won  distinction 
in  recent  years. 

Molly  Elliot  Seawell  (born  in  Gloucester  County,  Vir 
ginia,  in  1860),  a  resident  of  Washington,  began  writing 
fiction  in  1886.  Among  her  stories  are  "  Throckmorton " 
(1890),  "Little  Jarvis"  (1890),  a  Youth's  Companion  prize 
story,  "Midshipman  Paulding"  (1891),  "The  Sprightly 
Romance  of  Marsac"  (1896),  a  lively  story  that  won  a 
New  York  Herald  prize  of  $3000,  "The  Lively  Adventures 


236  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  Gavin  Hamilton"  (1899),  "The  House  of  Egremont " 
(1901),  "Children  of  Destiny"  (1903),  and  "The  Great 
Scoop"  (1905).  Her  plots  are  sometimes  slight  and  in 
consequential,  and  her  narrative  lacks  reserve;  but  she 
shows  skill  in  the  management  of  dialogue,  and  is  a  favourite 
writer. 

Ellen  Glasgow  (born  in  Richmond  in  1874)  has  found 
many  readers  with  her  "Descendant"  (1897),  "Phases  of 
an  Inferior  Planet"  (1898),  "The  Voice  of  the  People" 
(1900),  "The  Battle-Ground"  (1902),  and  "The  Deliver 
ance"  (1904).  She  does  not  manage  to  escape  from  im 
probabilities,  and  some  of  her  plots  are  desultory;  yet  on 
the  whole  her  work  maintains  a  high  average. 

Mary  Johnston  (born  at  Buchanan,  Virginia,  in  1870) 
has  realised  the  possibilities  of  early  Virginia  history  in 
her  successful  romances,  "Prisoners  of  Hope"  (1898), 
published  in  England  as  "The  Old  Dominion,"  "To  Have 
and  to  Hold"  (1900),  in  England  called  "By  Order  of  the 
Company,"  "Audrey"  (1902),  and  "Sir  Mortimer"  (1904). 
She  has  a  sure  touch,  and  her  narrative  moves  rapidly. 

But  we  have  already  exceeded  the  limits  of  our  space. 
The  work  of  Margaret  Sherwood,  William  A.  White,  Brand 
Whitlock,  Will  Payne,  Meredith  Nicholson,  George  Barr 
McCutcheon,  Jesse  Lynch  Williams,  David  Graham  Phillips, 
Mary  R.  Shipman  Andrews,  James  B.  Connolly,  Nelson 
Lloyd,  George  Cary  Eggleston,  William  N.  Harben,  Justus 
Miles  Forman,  and  many  others,  excellent  as  much  of  it 
is,  can  only  be  referred  to  summarily.  The  great  num 
ber  of  promising  writers  of  to-day  is  a  matter  of  congratu 
lation. 

Retrospect  and  Conclusion. — We  have  thus  traced  the 
American  novel  from  its  first  crude  beginnings  through  a 
little  more  than  a  century  of  healthy  and  constant  growth. 
It  took  the  American  novelist  some  three  or  four  decades 
to  learn  to  stand  on  his  own  feet;  since  he  has  learned  to 


The  Novelists  237 

walk  he  has  required  very  little  assistance  from  abroad. 
More  and  more  the  possibilities  of  American  life  have  at 
tracted  the  writers  of  prose  fiction.  In  the  earlier  decades 
of  the  last  century,  as  was  the  case  in  Europe,  the  romance 
was  the  only  fiction  in  demand;  and  the  romance  has 
ever  been  the  favourite  of  many  readers  who  maintain  that 
the  chief  function  of  literature  is  to  give  reality  through 
the  alembic  of  the  imagination.  Perhaps  the  creed  of 
romanticism  has  never  been  better  put  than  by  Mr.  Julian 
Hawthorne : 


The  value  of  fiction  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can  give  us  what  actual 
existence  cannot;  that  it  can  resume  in  a  chapter  the  conclusions 
of  a  lifetime;  that  it  can  omit  the  trivial,  the  vague,  the  redundant, 
and  select  the  significant,  the  forcible,  and  the  characteristic;  that 
it  can  satisfy  expectation,  expose  error,  and  vindicate  human 
nature.  Life,  as  we  experience  it,  is  too  vast,  its  relations  are  too 
complicated,  its  orbit  too  comprehensive,  ever  to  give  us  the  im 
pression  of  individual  completeness  and  justice;  but  the  intuition 
of  these  things,  though  denied  to  sense,  is  granted  to  faith,  and 
we  are  authorised  to  embody  that  interior  conviction  in  romance. 
.  .  .  And  stories  of  imagination  are  truer  than  transcripts  of 
fact,  because  they  include  or  postulate  these,  and  give  a  picture 
not  only  of  the  earth  beneath  our  feet,  but  of  the  sky  above  us,  of 
the  hope  and  freshness  of  the  morning,  of  the  mystery  and  magic 
of  the  night.  They  draw  the  complete  circle,  instead  of  mistrust 
fully  confining  themselves  to  the  lower  arc.  * 

Notwithstanding  the  attractiveness  of  this  artistic  creed, 
the  ranks  of  the  out-and-out  romancers  have  gradually 
thinned,  as  we  have  seen.  Professor  Boyesen  believed  that 
Bret  Harte  was  the  last  of  these.  Slowly  the  realists,  led 
by  Howells  and  James,  have  gained  ground,  and  for  the 
last  twenty  years  have  almost  steadily  held  the  field.  Of 
late,  indeed,  there  have  been  some  signs  of  a  reaction;  but 
it  has  as  yet  taken  no  very  pronounced  form. 

»  Quoted  by  Professor  C.  F.  Richardson,  "American  Literature," 
ii.  448-449. 


238  The  Nineteenth  Century 

A  necessary  concomitant  of  this  tendency  toward  real 
ism  has  been  an  increase  in  the  number  of  "  novels  of  the 
soil."  Writers  have  drawn  what  they  knew  best:  Miss 
Woolson,  the  Lake  region;  Cable,  Creole  New  Orleans; 
Ella  Higginson  and  Emma  Wolf,  the  Pacific  coast;  Allen, 
Kentucky;  Miss  Murfree,  Tennessee;  Fawcett  and  Bunner, 
New  York;  Henry  B.  Fuller  and  Miss  Wyatt,  Chicago; 
Miss  Jewett  and  Mrs.  Wilkins  Freeman,  New  England. 
One  reason  why  the  "great  American  novel"  has  not  yet 
been  written  is  the  very  bigness  of  the  country.  No  great 
personality  has  yet  risen  who  can  combine  all  the  elements 
of  our  vast  modern  life  into  one  harmonious  structure. 
Meanwhile  we  have  had  most  of  the  various  sections  of 
our  country  described  in  fiction  by  skilful  hands.  Types 
of  a  life  that  is  passing  away  have  been  caught  and  pre 
served  in  a  fiction  which,  though  assuredly  not  immortal, 
is  destined,  we  believe,  to  a  long  life. 

Our  critics  have  justly  complained,  however,  of  the 
limited  range  of  our  novelists.  They  are  timid.  They  are 
content  to  paint  a  small  canvas.  They  do  not  rise  to  great 
conceptions.  They  do  not  probe  life  to  its  depths;  neither 
do  they  rise  to  the  height  of  all  its  grandeur.  This  is,  of 
course,  only  another  way  of  saying  that  we  have  no  su 
premely  great  novelists.  But  doubtless  the  mediocrity  of 
our  fiction  is  partly  due  to  the  disastrous  effect  of  com 
mercialism  and  professionalism  on  the  novelist's  trade; 
though  Mr.  Whibley's  account  of  this  (Blackwood's,  March, 
1908)  is  exaggerated.  Certainly  our  writers  must  be  less 
eager  for  immediate  and  substantial  rewards.  Poeta  nas- 
citur,  non  fit;  too  many  "made"  writers  are  pouring  out 
fiction  to-day. 

Our  fiction  possesses  one  characteristic  which  has  often 
been  commented  upon — a  general  excellence  of  moral 
atmosphere.  There  is  little  American  fiction  that  must 
be  kept  from  the  curious  Young  Person.  Some  critics 
allege  that  the  obligation  to  write  what  anyone  may  be 


The  Novelists  239 

permitted  to  read  has  prevented  American  novelists  from 
discussing  those  darker  problems  of  sex-relations  which 
confront  us,  and  which  should  find  expression  in  a  litera 
ture  adequately  reflecting  our  intellectual  and  moral  life; 
that  missing  any  rigorous  attack  on  these  problems  they 
find  our  fiction  tame,  insipid,  wanting  in  vitality.  But 
such  an  opinion  carries  with  it  its  own  condemnation.  If 
our  fiction  lacks  vitality,  it  is  probably  from  other  causes ; 
at  any  rate  Americans  are  generally  content  to  leave  mat 
ters  of  moral  pathology  to  their  moral  surgeons,  whose 
diagnoses  and  discussions  are  not  expected  to  circulate 
promiscuously;  and  it  is  not  likely  that  our  novelists  will 
consent  to  defile  their  pages  for  the  sake  of  securing  com 
prehensiveness  in  their  pictures  of  life. 

The  short  story  has  been  brought  by  American  writers 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Irving  was  its  American 
father;  and  in  the  hands  of  Hawthorne,  Poe,  Fitz- James 
O'Brien,  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Miss  Woolson,  Brander 
Matthews,  Miss  Jewett,  Stockton,  Page,  Mark  Twain,  Mrs. 
Freeman,  and  many  others,  it  has  become  a  highly  flexible 
instrument,  capable  of  subtle  adaptations.  The  limitations 
of  range  and  environment  have  made  for  great  delicacy 
and  precision  in  the  minute  portraits  and  the  genres  to  be 
found  in  large  numbers  throughout  our  short  stories. 

Yet  nothwithstanding  the  increase  in  the  number  and 
the  advance  in  quality  of  our  short  stories,  the  novel  con 
tinues  as  popular  as  ever.  The  immense  vogue  of  the 
novel  in  America  has  been  commented  upon  many  times. 
The  "best  sellers"  are  almost  always  novels;  and  so  many 
novels  of  more  than  average  excellence  are  produced 
every  year  that  many  really  superior  stories  do  not  get  the 
immediate  hearing,  at  least,  which  they  deserve.  That 
this  demand  for  novels  will  continue  unabated  for  some 
time  is  altogether  likely.  That  another  form  of  literature 
will  soon  take  its  place  is  quite  improbable. 

Apparently  we  have  no  great  living  poets;  for  various 


240  The  Nineteenth  Century 

reasons  we  have  no  dramatists  of  note;  of  novelists  who 
are  at  least  possibilities,  we  have  several. 

What  will  be  the  type  of  the  American  novel  of  the 
future?  Probably  it  is  rash  to  make  any  prediction;  but 
one  may  venture  to  believe  that  the  prevailing  attitude  of 
our  future  novelists  will  be  that  of  a  sane  and  optimistic 
realism.  The  morbid  books  like  "The  Jungle"  do  not 
wear  well;  and,  while  such  books  may  have  their  use  in 
promoting  needed  reforms,  they  do  not  constitute  additions 
to  literature  and  can,  therefore,  secure  no  permanent 
place.  The  pleasant  paths  of  romance  will  always  tempt 
bold  and  imaginative  writers;  but  they  will  be  more  than 
ever  restrained  by  the  demand  of  enlightened  readers  that 
they  shall  not  wander  far  from  the  probable,  and  shall 
present,  clear  and  undistorted,  the  best  there  is  in  the 
actual  present.  That  there  are  immense  possibilities  in 
the  varied  and  complex  life  of  to-day,  few  will  doubt ;  that 
the  great  artists  are  to  appear  who  will  make  the  most  of 
these  opportunities  we  may  assume  with  confidence. 

III.      THE  POETS 

English  Influence  on  American  Poetry. — If  we  accept 

the  popular  belief,  and  identify  poets  with  makers  of  verse, 
it  must  be  allowed  that  American  poetry  at  its'  best — in 
the  nineteenth  century — is  in  a  peculiar  sense  unoriginal 
and  derivative.  To  be  derivative,  to  have  a  traceable 
pedigree,  may,  indeed,  be  no  disadvantage,  either  for  a 
national  or  an  individual  genius.  In  their  way,  all  modern 
literatures  are  derivative  and  unoriginal;  not  merely  in 
fluenced  by  each  other,  but  ultimately  dependent  for  the 
sources  of  their  inspiration  upon  the  basal  civilisations  of 
Palestine  and  Greece.  "We  are  all  Greeks,"  said  Shelley. 
Milton  might  have  said,  "We  are  all  Hebrews."  And 
our  best  American  poets  might  have  added,  "We  are  all 
Englishmen.  "  Particular  scenes  on  this  continent,  and  the 


The  Poets  241 

vast  and  ever  growing  extent  of  our  territory,  have  both 
left  their  impress  on  our  poets  during  the  last  five  genera 
tions;  they  have  touched  the  poetry  of  ten  or  twelve 
decades  here  and  there  with  the  undeniable  stamp  of 
reality,  and  given  it  now  and  then  a  largeness  of  range 
and  freedom  of  atmosphere  very  proper  to  a  nation  whose 
sense  of  geography  has  been  so  elastic.  Yet  one  can 
hardly  say  that  our  natural  scenery  has  ever  been  really 
incarnate  in  our  literature  as  a  whole,  or  that  a  pervasive 
national  spirit,  a  spirit  at  once  large  and  precise,  has 
entered  fundamentally  into  our  verse.  What  has  been 
most  effectual  in  our  literature  has  been  closely  imitative, 
has  followed  at  a  little  distance,  yet  step  for  step,  the  de 
velopment  of  the  English  literature  from  which  it  sprang. 
This  continuous  imitation,  now  more  superficial,  now 
more  indirect  and  elusive,  has  been  the  mainspring  of  our 
poetry  even  more  than  our  prose,  during  the  century  just 
gone  by. 

American  poetry,  it  is  true,  has  probably  been  more 
plastic  and  mobile  in  its  outer  form  than  American  prose, 
has  been  less  steadily  patterned  after  those  literary  stand 
ards  in  England  which  were  bequeathed  by  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  prose  style  of  Irving  betrays  its  descent 
from  the  essays  of  Addison;  the  style  of  Franklin  was 
developed  through  conscious  and  painstaking  emulation 
of  the  same  models.  Even  fairly  late  in  the  eighteen 
hundreds,  when  perhaps  only  a  trained  ear  can  detect 
the  lingering  echoes  of  Pope  and  his  school  in  our  verse, 
the  "Autocrat"  of  Wendell  Holmes  still  retains  an  accent 
and  a  flavour  from  eighteenth-century,  Ciceronian  elo 
quence.  No  doubt  the  age  of  Pope  and  Johnson  survived 
by  many  vestiges  much  longer  in  English  prose  than  in 
English  verse,  for  its  habits  of  thought  were  more  or  less 
suited  to  argument  and  exposition  in  every  time.  Yet  in 
the  history  of  American  letters  it  is  easier  to  find  parallels 
to  Wordsworth  and  Shelley  than  to  duplicate  the  prose 


242  The  Nineteenth  Century 

rhapsodies — characteristic  in  nineteenth-century  Europe 
— of  De  Quincey  and  Ruskin.  To  the  transition  in  English 
literature  that  was  marked  by  the  appearance  of  ' '  Lyrical 
Ballads"  in  1798  our  poetry  was,  in  the  main,  more 
quickly  responsive  than  our  prose.  None  the  less  our 
prose,  more  conservative  though  it  has  been,  less  change 
ful  in  its  manner  of  expression,  has  struck  its  roots  far 
more  deeply  into  our  national  being;  and  our  verse,  like 
the  other  fine  arts,  is  still  an  exotic. 

For  our  lack  of  a  national  art,  a  national  poetry,  a 
superficial  reason  is  often  assigned:  in  the  conditions  of  a 
new  country,  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  in  the  develop 
ment  of  agriculture  and  commerce,  in  the  assimilation  of 
foreign  races,  there  has  been  very  little  time  for  the  nourish 
ment  of  letters,  v^y  little  of  that  leisure  which  the  Greeks 
called  schole,  and  which  is  indispensable  for  a  productive 
scholarship  and  for  the  flourishing  of  imagination.  Yet 
we  have  had,  or  have  taken,  sufficient  leisure  to  write  and 
publish  an  immense  amount  of  verse,  judged  merely  by  its 
bulk.  Scarcely  an  American  author  can  be  mentioned 
in  the  nineteenth  century  that  did  not  try  his  hand  at 
metrical  composition.  The  truth  is,  rather,  that  we  have 
seldom  approached  the  art  of  poetry  with  enough  serious 
ness;  that,  having  rebelled  against  the  Puritan's  unkindly 
conception  of  life,  we  have  nevertheless  to  some  extent  ac 
quiesced  in  his  belittling  estimate  of  imaginative  art; 
that  we  have  failed  to  recognise  in  the  poet  a  necessary 
servant  of  the  commonwealth,  a  leader  worthy  of  a  high 
and  severe  training.  Our  versifiers  have  rushed  into  print 
before  they  were  ripe,  and  they  have  praised  each  other's 
work  too  easily ;  while  the  standards  set  by  the  public  taste 
have  been  readily  met  when  the  rhymers  succeeded  in 
being  "patriotic."  Real  patriotism  demands  such  an 
admission. 

Not  that  our  poets  have  been  wholly  without  a  philo 
sophy  of  criticism;  though  it  is  significant  that  the  most 


The  Poets  243 

subtle  and  sympathetic  understanding  of  the  poetic 
temperament,  of  its  function  as  well  as  its  perils,  is  to  be 
found,  not  in  the  writings  of  any  maker  of  verses  but  in 
those  of  a  novelist,  Hawthorne — for  example,  in  "The 
House  of  Seven  Gables"  and  "The  Great  Stone  Face." 
Yet  Bryant  read,  meditated,  and  wrote  upon  the  art  of 
poetry;  Poe  thought  somewhat,  if  not  deeply,  upon  it; 
Lanier  made  a  worthy  contribution  to  the  science  of 
meter;  Longfellow  was  conversant  with  the  literature  of 
criticism;  and  Emerson's  stimulating  essay  on  "The  Poet,  " 
while  it  may  not  have  been  the  sort  of  medicine  that  our 
men  of  letters  most  needed,  has  doubtless  exerted  a  whole 
some  influence.  In  Poe's  day,  several  magazines  were 
discussing  the  principles  of  imaginative  composition. 
However,  an  "Art  of  Poetry"  like  Timrod's  (published  in 
The  Atlantic  Monthly  for  September,  1905)  could  lie  for 
forty  years  in  manuscript,  without  exciting  any  strong 
suspicion  of  its  value;  and  in  the  long  run  there  has  been 
an  amazing  disproportion  between  the  slender  thread  of 
fundamental  tradition  and  sound  critical  theory  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  swollen  and  rapid  stream  of  naive, 
uncultivated  verse,  gathering  from  every  quarter,  on  the 
other.  Whatever  English  poets  furnished  the  models,  the 
imitation  was  largely  on  the  surface.  First  Pope  and  his 
successors  in  England,  then  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge, 
then  Shelley  and  Keats,  and  Scott  and  Bryon,  and  sub 
sequently  Tennyson, — all  had  in  turn  their  American 
devotees.  But  there  seems  to  have  been  relatively  little 
understanding  like  that  of  Bryant  and  Timrod  for  the 
conscious  theory  underlying  the  "experiments"  in  "Lyrical 
Ballads,"  or  for  the  ideal  demands  which  Shelley  laid 
upon  poetry  and  poets;  nor  did  cisatlantic  readers  of 
Lord  Byron  much  concern  themselves  about  that  Longinus 
whom  he  studied  "o'er  a  bottle,"  or  for  the  structural 
frame  upon  which  was  reared  Tennyson's  "Palace  of 
Art," 


244  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Characteristics  of  the  Period. — Of  course  in  the  follow 
ing  pages  we  shall  deal  as  briefly  as  possible  with  those 
American  poets  in  the  last  century  who  are  touched  to 
any  great  extent  by  strictures  like  these;  for  a  history  of 
literature  is  bound  to  treat  as  far  as  may  be  of  writers  that 
have  made  a  wise  use  of  tradition,  and  whose  native  in 
sight  has  enabled  them  to  train  their  genius  in  accordance 
with  universal  canons  of  art,  and  with  a  due  appreciation 
of  masterly  technique.  Meanwhile  we  may  attempt  to 
summarise  the  characteristics  of  the  poetical  era  under 
consideration,  and,  in  particular,  of  the  earlier  rather  than 
the  latter  half  of  that  era.  The  nearer  we  advance  to 
ward  our  own  day,  the  wiser  it  is  to  refrain  from  general 
characterisation. 

1 .  The  relation  between  English  literature  and  American 
in  the  initial  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  the  last  century 
has  already  been   suggested.     Aside   from  that,   or  very 
often  through  that,  the  influence  of  Rousseau  was  para 
mount.     The    doctrine    that    upheld    the    innocence    of 
"man  in  a  state  of  nature,"  and  maintained  the  equality 
of  all  individuals,  and  the  feeling,  half  pantheistic,  for  an 
external  nature  opposed  to  civilisation,  since  they  entered 
into  the  vital  tissue  of  our  national  thought, — and  though 
they  are  at  bottom  contrary  to  science  and  all  demonstrable 
experience — are  among  the  very  conditions,  so  to  speak, 
of  much  of  our  poetry.     From  these  sources,  for  example, 
it  came  about  that  while  in  actual  practice  we  despised 
and  maltreated  that  "natural  man"  the  cruel  Indian,  we 
idealised  him  in  poetical  effusions ;  just  as  Fenimore  Cooper, 
treading  in  the  footsteps  of  Chateaubriand,  idealised  him 
in  prose. 

2.  Our  earlier  poets,   that  is,  immediately  after  the 
Revolution,  but  again,  and  especially,  after  the  War  of 
1812  had  confirmed  our  sense  of  national  solidarity,  are 
much  given  to  the  utterance  of  their  patriotism;  albeit 
pnly  a  few  put  of  many  more  or  less  pretentious  or  taste- 


The  Poets  245 

ful  efforts  have  survived.  Key's  "  Star- Spangled  Banner" 
(1814),  conceived  at  the  close  of  the  second  war,  antedates 
"The  American  Flag"  (1819)  of  Drake  by  but  five  years; 
these  two,  with  Hopkinson's  "Hail  Columbia"  (1798), 
and  "America"  (1832),  the  well-known  hymn  by  S.  F. 
Smith,  whatever  their  relative  or  absolute  merits  as  litera 
ture,  remain  our  most  cherished  national  poems. 

3.  However  frequent  or  insistent  the  note  of  patriotism, 
the  general  temper  of  American  poets  has  not  been  strongly 
optimistic.     As  one  glances  over  a  long  list  of  the  subjects 
chosen  for  treatment,  a  leaning  toward  the  more  sombre 
and   melancholy   elements   and    aspects    of   life   becomes 
more  and  more  apparent.     Nor  is  this  leaning  confined 
to  the  multitude.     Exceptions  like  Walt  Whitman  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding,  it  is  characteristic,  in  the  main, 
of  the  leaders,  whenever  they  escape  from  common  or 
inherited  themes,  and  give  rein  to  their  own  personalities. 
That  joy  which  is  the  well-spring  of  Wordsworth's  vitality 
is  greatly  diminished  in  even  his  nearest  American  counter 
part,  Bryant;  assuredly  it  is  not  akin  to  the  subdued  sad 
ness  of  Longfellow,  though  this  be  not  strictly  "akin  to 
pain." 

4.  On  the   other  hand,  the  noblest  American  poetry 
has  not  been  tragic.     Tragedy  and  serious  epic  have  been 
attempted,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  Dwight,  Barlow,  and  so 
many  others,  largely  as  academic  exer citations,  savouring 
of  the  desk  and  the  library.     With  our  national  life  they 
have  had  no  essential  connection.     A  central  motive  in  our 
history  like  the  death  of  Lincoln  still  awaits  the  imagina 
tion  of  a  master-dramatist. 

5.  Though  few  have  devoted  their  entire  lives  to  it, 
most  of  our  poets   have  begun  the  profession  betimes, 
conceiving  very  often  in  haste,  and  publishing  in  their 
immaturity.     The  painful  advice  of  Horace  has  not  been 
to  our  liking.     With  the  examples  of  Milton,  Wordsworth, 
and  Tennyson  continually  before  us,  we  have  yet  failed  to 


246  The  Nineteenth  Century 

profit  by  their  insistence  upon  generous  preparation, 
meticulous  technique,  and  laborious  delay  in  publication. 
We  have  realised  the  brevity  of  life  more  fully  than  the 
length  of  art. 

6.  Our  respect  for  the  "practical"  and   for  "common 
sense"   is  allied  to  a  fondness  shown  in  our  poetry  for 
common,   everyday  subjects.     Here,   of  course,   we   have 
succeeded  better  in  the  comic  than  in  the  serious  vein. 
To   treat  of  homely  topics  so  as  to  invest  their  essential 
dignity   with   the   light   of  imagination — in   painting   the 
world  about  us,  to  "add  the  gleam" — was  the  task  set 
for  himself  by  an  English  mystic.     It  is  a  dangerous  trade 
for  men  whose  talk  is  of  oxen.     Homely  minds  on  homely 
matters  are  prone  to  slip  into  the  trivial  or  the  pathetic. 
Even  Longfellow  cannot  be  freed  from  the  charge  of  too 
much  attention  to  the  obvious  commonplace,  and,  as  a 
versifier  at  least,  of  too  much  love  for  the  merely  sen 
timental.     For  adequate  imaginative  handling  of  themes 
that  are  serious,  complete,  and  of  sufficient  magnitude  to 
produce  the  loftier  effects  of  great  literary  art,  we  are  in 
general  forced  to  go  to  our  best  prose  fiction. 

7.  So  long  as  Puritan  ideals,   however  modified  and 
softened,  continued  to  dominate  any  considerable  part  of 
American   education,   that  is,   up  to  a  point  somewhere 
within  the  past  twenty-five  years,  our  poetry  has  tended 
to  be  obviously  didactic.     Not  only  clerical  but  secular 
poets  have  seemed  to  regard  themselves  as  direct  teachers 
of  morality.     In  satirical  writers, — Freneau,  Halleck, — or 
in  literature  that   by  virtue  of   its  kind  is  pietistic,  such 
a  tendency  is  altogether  normal  and   effective.     But  in 
supposedly  imaginative  poems  such  as  "The  Vision  of  Sir 
Launfal, "  though  the  basic  moral  order  of  the  universe 
doubtless  ought  to  be  inherent,  it  just  as  certainly  ought 
to  contrive  its  own  effect,  without  the  adventitious  aid  of 
sermonising.     To  the  present  writer,  much  of  the  best — 
not  of  course  the  very  best — in  American  poetry  loses  in 


The  Poets  247 

ethical  as  well  as  aesthetic  value  through  the  intrusion  of 
argument  and  exhortation  on  the  subject  of  conduct  or 
belief.  The  finest  work  of  Holmes,  for  instance,  "The 
Chambered  Nautilus,"  may  be  thought  to  lose  in  this 
way.  The  spirit  of  the  United  States  is  a  prosaic  spirit, 
hence  our  verse,  when  it  is  at  all  substantial,  rarely  lacks 
some  element  or  other  from  the  style  of  the  forensic  orator. 
8.  On  the  other  hand,  since  we  can  make  no  pretence 
to  the  possession  of  a  tragic  drama,  and  none  to  a  truly 
national  epic,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  our  poetry 
has  risen  to  its  greatest  heights  in  meditative  and  religious 
lyric ;  in  meditative  verse  on  nature,  that  is,  such  "  nature- 
poetry"  as  assumes  the  Divine  immanence  throughout  the 
world  of  objective  reality — in  Bryant's  "  Thanatopsis  " ;  and 
in  the  religious  lyric,  that  is,  in  a  few  of  our  hymns. 

The  Earlier  Poets. — We  commence  this  survey  of  Ameri 
can  poetry  at  the  date  to  which  the  sections  adapted 
from  Tyler  have  conducted  the  literature  as  a  whole, 
namely,  the  year  1784.  The  chief  poets  of  the  Revolution 
ary  period,  Barlow,  Dwight,  Trumbull,  and  Freneau,  all 
lived  well  on  into  the  next  century,  Barlow,  in  fact,  being 
the  only  one  of  these  who  did  not  survive  the  War  of  1812. 

In  Barlow's  day,  heroics  were  the  fashion.  His  magnum 
opus,  a  rhymed  epic  on  the  discovery  of  America,  had 
already  taken  shape  in  manuscript  as  early  as  1781;  in 
1787  it  appeared  as  "The  Vision  of  Columbus";  by  1807 
it  had  grown  into  the  ponderous  "Columbiad. "  It  is  an 
uninspired,  pseudo-classical  narrative,  schematically  and 
metrically  correct,  but  organically  lifeless,  full  of  the 
"  printer's  devil  personification  "  so  characteristic  of  its  time. 
With  gratuitous  industry,  as  it  supplies  all  the  lineage  of 
personified  abstractions  like  "Discord,"  so  it  begins  the 
history  of  America  at  Creation,  fetches  the  story  down 
through  colonial  times  to  the  Revolution,  and  includes  in 
its  sweep  a  glance  at  events  yet  to  come.  Similarly  in  his 


248  The  Nineteenth  Century 

mock-heroic,  "The  Hasty  Pudding"  (1793),  which  is 
touched  with  fancy  and  is  in  every  way  more  attractive 
than  his  "Columbiad, "  Barlow  commences  with  the  growth 
and  harvesting  of  the  maize  which  is  to  furnish  the  flour. 
Dwight,  who  was  at  first  a  tutor,  but  from  1795  until 
his  death,  in  1817,  president,  of  Yale  College,  in  1785 
brought  forth  a  Biblical  epic  entitled  "The  Conquest  of 
Canaan, "  in  which  the  narrative  of  Exodus  is  diversified 
by  allusions  to  heroes  in  the  American  War  of  Independ 
ence,  and  by  a  tale  of  romantic  love  superadded.  Dwight 
was  a  diligent  reader  of  Pope  and  Goldsmith,  but  he  did 
not  confine  his  interest  to  the  eighteenth  century;  he  knew 
the  enchantment  of  the  poets'  poet,  Spenser;  and  like 
Thomson  he  could  at  times,  as  in  "Greenfield  Hill,"  look 
with  his  own  eyes  at  things  about  him.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Trumbull,  Humphreys,  and  Barlow;  on  occasion  he 
penned  a  bitter  invective.  But  as  a  writer  he  will  be 
remembered  for  his  noble  hymn,  whose  second  stanza 
commences, 

I  love  Thy  Church,  O  God, 

which  is  the  key-note  of  his  life. 

Trumbull,  though  he  lived  to  a  great  age  (1750-1831), 
had  completed  his  remarkable  mock-heroic,  "M'Fingal, " 
prior  to  1784;  hence  at  this  point  he  interests  us  chiefly 
on  account  of  his  friendship  with  Dwight  and  Barlow,  and 
his  effect  on  later  satirists. 

With  Freneau  the  case  is  different.  Some  of  his  choicest 
verse  did  not  appear  until  1786,  when  he  published  a 
collection  containing  "The  House  of  Night";  and  in  1795 
he  brought  together  in  another  collection  what  he  ap 
parently  considered  best  in  his  output  for  twenty-five 
years  or  more  preceding.  This  was  very  uneven,  including 
much  that  might  better  have  been  left  unprinted,  and 
other  work  which  stamps  Freneau  as  the  one  American 
of  true  poetical  genius  before  1 800.  He  was  not  unaware  of 


The  Poets  249 

his  powers,  and  aimed  to  develop  them  by  frequent  perusal 
of  good  models  in  ancient  and  modern  literature;  but  he 
was  not  sufficiently  self-critical.  He  prolonged  a  career  of 
travel  and  rapid  composition,  in  both  poetry  and  prose, 
beyond  the  normal  span  of  life,  making  still  another  collec 
tion  of  his  works  in  1815.  His  latter  years  were  darkened 
by  the  thought  that  he  was  being  unwarrantably  neglected 
for  men  of  lesser  talent.  A  man  of  great  bodily  vigour, 
he  was  meditating  yet  another,  a  final,  edition  of  his  writ 
ings,  when  he  came  to  his  unfortunate  end.  In  1832  he 
lost  his  way  as  he  was  returning  home  through  a  snow 
storm,  and  died  from  exposure.  His  once  maligned  per 
sonality  has  of  late  been  duly  vindicated,  and  his  work  has 
received  generous  praise.  It  is  claimed  that  Scott  and 
Campbell  were  content  to  borrow  lines  from  him.  Further 
more,  he  has  been  deemed  a  co-worker  with  Coleridge  and 
Wordsworth  in  bringing  about  in  literature  the  so-called 
"return  to  nature."  The  parallel  might  easily  be  carried 
too  far.  Until  literary  scholarship  has  broadened  and 
deepened  its  knowledge  of  the  entire  period  in  which 
Freneau  was  active,  neither  the  worth  of  his  poetry  nor 
the  possible  extent  of  his  influence  can  be  judicially  deter 
mined.  There  can  be  no  question  that  such  poems  as 
"The  Wild  Honeysuckle,  "The  Hurricane,"  "The  Dying 
Indian, "  and  "  Eutaw  Springs  "  have  more  than  a  transitory 
value.  However,  it  is  by  his  satirical  verse  that  Freneau 
might  seem  more  likely  to  persist;  for  the  nature  of  satire 
tolerates  in  some  measure  a  free  and  easy  style  such  as  he 
developed. 

Early  Minor  Poets. — Of  the  minor  poetry  prior  to  1815 
there  is  little  to  be  said  by  way  of  praise.  We  see  in  it 
how  the  influence  of  Akenside  and  other  English  didactic 
writers  of  a  previous  age  gives  ground  before  the  newer 
spirit  of  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge;  although  the  satires 
of  the  Revolution  had  a  lineage,  in  Paine  and  others,  that 


250  The  Nineteenth  Century 

did  not  quickly  die  away;  and  although  several  other 
literary  fashions  had  their  intervals  of  existence,  as,  for 
example,  the  imitation  of  "Ossian"  and  the  cult  of  the 
Delia  Cruscans.  The  intellect  of  Akenside  made  itself  felt 
in  such  work  as  "The  Power  of  Solitude  "  (1804),  by  Joseph 
Story  (1779-1845),  and  the  anonymous  "Pains  of  Memory, " 
published  four  years  later.  "Of  much  higher  merit," 
thinks  Professor  Bronson,  "are  the  didactic  poems  of  Robert 
Treat  Paine  (1773-1811),  a  man  of  versatile  and  brilliant 
parts,  but  dissipated  character.  His  lyrics,  orations,  and 
dramatic  criticisms  all  show  ability.  But  his  best  work  is 
'  The  Ruling  Passion,'  a  poem  delivered  before  the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  at  Harvard  in  1797.  "  This  is  "frankly  on  the 
model  of  Pope,  but  so  witty,  vigorous,  and  pointed  that 
it  does  honour  to  its  original. "  William  Cliff  ton's  ' '  Poems  " 
(1800),  and  Thomas  G.  Fessenden's  "Original  Poems" 
(1804),  can  only  be  mentioned. 

A  word  may  be  added  on  the  poetesses  of  the  time, 
several  of  whom,  for  example  Mrs.  Mercy  Warren  (1728- 
1814),  having  made  themselves  heard  during  the  Ameri 
can  struggle  for  liberty,  continued  to  find  an  audience  in 
the  early  years  of  the  Republic.  Mrs.  Warren's  poems 
were  collected  in  1790,  Mrs.  Susanna  H.  Rowson's  in  1804. 
The  sentimental  Mrs.  Sarah  W.  Morton  may  also  be  noted ; 
she  nourished  somewhat  later  than  the  others  (1759-1846). 
She  is  no  longer  interesting  as  the  "American  Sappho," 
nor  is  it  generally  recalled  that  she  considered  Paine  to  be 
the  American  "Menander. "  She  was  an  exponent  of  the 
inane  "Delia  Cruscan"  style,  which  had  its  vogue  in  Eng 
land  until  it  was  attacked  by  William  Gifford,  and  in  the 
United  States  until  Gifford's  "Baviad"  and  "Maeviad" 
were  republished  at  Philadelphia  (1799),  seconded  by  a 
poetical  epistle  to  their  author  from  the  pen  of  the  young 
Quaker  Cliffton. 

Not  less  pernicious  than  the  Delia  Cruscans  were  the 
imitators  of  MacPherson's  "Ossian,"  including  Joseph  B. 


The  Poets  251 

Ladd  (1764-1786),  Jonathan  M.  Sewall  (1746-1808),  and 
John  Blair  Linn  (1777-1804).  Both  schools  gave  place 
when  the  Wordsworthian  reaction  set  in  against  "poetic 
diction"  and  the  habit  of  writing  verse  about  natural  ob 
jects  without  having  looked  at  them. 

When  party  spirit  runs  high,  satire  is  likely  to  be  thriv 
ing.  Political  tension  during  the  latter  part  of  Wash 
ington's  presidency  and  during  the  administrations  of 
Adams  and  Jefferson  gave  birth  to  a  brood  of  satiric  poems, 
many  of  them  unacknowledged  by  their  authors.  Anony 
mous  or  otherwise,  in  most  of  them  the  writer's  pen  was 
wielded  as  a  bludgeon  rather  than  a  knife.  Freneau  him 
self  was  none  too  delicate  in  his  censure  of  the  govern 
ment,  although  he  ill  deserved  the  reputation  of  a  man 
lacking  in  love  for  his  country;  but  Freneau  was  merely 
the  most  gifted  among  a  number,  more  partisan  than  he, 
who,  according  as  they  were  Federalists  or  Democrats, 
bitterly  assailed  the  measures  of  the  opposing  faction. 
The  "  Democratiad "  and  the  "Guillotina"  were  anony 
mous  attacks  in  1795  and  1796  upon  the  Democrats. 
William  Cobbett,  the  Englishman,  and  Alexander  Hamil 
ton,  whose  private  life  offered  an  easy  target,  were  pilloried 
as  representatives  of  the  Federalist  party,  in  Carey's 
" Porcupiniad "  (1799)  and  a  collection  entitled  "Olio" 
(1801). 

Nor  was  factional  spleen  unrelated  to  a  variety  of 
patriotic  sentiment  which  displayed  itself  in  verse  for 
holidays  and  state  occasions;  but,  like  all  the  satires,  most 
of  the  post- Revolutionary  effusions  of  patriotism  have  long 
since  ceased  to  excite  emotion.  As  has  been  noted,  Hop- 
kinson's  "Hail  Columbia"  (1798)  is  one  of  the  exceptions. 
Colonel  David  Humphreys  (1753-1818),  a  large  part  of 
whose  verse  amounted  to  eulogies  on  Washington,  to  the 
general  public  is  hardly  so  much  as  a  memory;  and  his 
intention  "to  make  use  of  poetry  for  strengthening  pa 
triotism,  promoting  virtue,  and  extending  happiness"  has 


252  The  Nineteenth  Century 

gone  the  way  of  many  similar  purposes  of  great  excellence 
unaided  by  genius. 

Washington  Allston. — The  first  poet  of  distinction  who 
evidently  represents  the  tradition  of  Wordsworth  was  the 
artist  Washington  Allston  (1779-1843),  a  friend  of  Coleridge, 
and  declared  by  him  to  have  a  genius  for  literature  and 
painting  "  unsurpassed  by  any  man  of  his  age. "  Southey 
too  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer;  and  Wordsworth,  who 
was  chary  of  praise  for  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  com 
mended  the  American  painter  ungrudgingly.  In  Allston's 
"Sylphs  of  the  Seasons"  (1813)  there  is  evidence  of  the 
exact  eye  of  an  artist,  and  there  is  much  delicacy  of  senti 
ment  and  gentle  play  of  fancy;  but  great  constructive 
and  imaginative  vigour  are  not  present,  and  a  certain  tame- 
ness  in  the  rhymes  and  obviousness  in  the  succession  of 
thoughts  serve  to  explain  why  the  poem  has  not  secured 
a  more  lasting  recognition.  His  "  America  and  Great 
Britain"  was  included  by  Coleridge  in  "Sibylline  Leaves" 
(1817),  "for  its  moral  no  less  than  its  patriotic  spirit." 
As  an  attempt  to  incorporate  in  language  the  conception 
of  abstract,  so  to  speak,  intellectual,  beauty,  "The  Angel 
and  the  Nightingale"  reminds  one  of  Shelley. 

Before  Allston,  there  had  been  ballad-writers  who  dealt 
with  themes  that  are  now  familar  to  readers  of  Words 
worth  and  Coleridge.  In  particular,  the  motive  of  the  young 
and  innocent  girl  who  has  been  betrayed,  and  through  her 
betrayal  crazed,  was  a  notable  favourite.  Lucius  M.  Sar 
gent's  "  Hubert  and  Ellen  "  (1812)  is  described  as  a  poor  imi 
tation  of  Wordsworth,  taking  its  cue,  like  Joseph  Hutton's 
ballad  on  Crazy  Jane  ("  Leisure  Hours,"  1812)  and  Henry 
C.  Knight's  "Poor  Margaret  Dwy, "  from  one  study  or 
another  of  mental  derangement  in  "  Lyrical  Ballads"  or  the 
"Poems"  (by  Wordsworth)  of  1807.  Doubtless  a  large 
number  of  parallels  could  be ,  found  in  American  literature 
to  Wordsworth's  "  Ruth, "  and  to  his  sympathetic  treatment 


The  Poets  253 

of  other  lowly  types  of  humanity.  In  like  manner,  just  as 
the  same  English  poet  fraternises  with  the  robin  and  the 
butterfly,  and  Coleridge  hails  a  young  ass  as  his  "  brother, " 
and  as  Shelley  in  1815  claims  kindred  with  "  bright  bird,  in 
sect,  or  gentle  beast, "  so  Knight  addresses  "  The  Caterpillar  " 
(1821)  as  "cousin  reptile."  The  Puritans  had  averred, 
Most  sins,  and  all  sinners,  are  equal;  Rousseau  and  the 
French  Revolutionists  went  further,  declaring,  All  men  are 
equal;  and  now,  responsive  to  the  doctrine  of  Coleridge 
and  his  Pantisocrats,  American  poets  were  implying,  All 
creatures  are  equal.  Thus  thrives  the  principle  of  de 
mocracy  and  fraternity.  Themistocles  is  at  length  no 
better  than  the  boorish  islander,  and  the  Apostles  have 
lost  their  superiority  to  sparrows.  "Cousin  reptile,"  of 
course,  is  an  extreme  case. 

On  its  saner  side,  the  new  impulse  set  in  motion  several 
writers  of  not  a  little  promise.  Such  was  John  Neal  (1793- 
1876),  whose  poem  "The  Battle  of  Niagara"  (1818) 
reflects  Wordsworthianism  at  second  hand  through  Shelley 
and  Keats,  with  a  touch  of  Byronic  grandiloquence  and 
tameness,  but  with  a  touch,  too,  of  aboriginal  nature, 
however  crude.  The  native  powers  of  Neal  were  later  dis 
sipated  in  journalism,  novel-writing,  and  the  like. 

Joseph  Rodman  Drake. — Of  great  promise  likewise,  but 
cut  short  by  a  premature  demise,  was  the  career  of  Joseph 
Rodman  Drake  (1795-1820).  Drake  was  a  precocious 
spirit,  working  swiftly,  and  valuing  his  easily  produced 
and  quickly  moving  verses  perhaps  a  little  below  their  true 
worth.  A  friend  of  Halleck,  and  like  Halleck  under  the 
sway  of  the  novelist  Fenimore  Cooper,  he  reveals  also  how 
familiar  he  was  with  the  half -luminous,  half-misty  style  of 
Coleridge.  In  Drake's  happiest  attempt,  "The  Culprit 
Fay"  (1816),  he  aimed  to  find  an  utterance  for  the  poetry 
of  the  great  American  rivers,  hitherto  neglected,  as  he 
and  his  friends  decided,  in  the  native  literature.  The  out- 


254  The  Nineteenth  Century 

come  of  a  discussion  between  Drake,  Freneau,  and  Cooper, 
this  fanciful  story  is  nevertheless  replete  with  the  cadences 
of  Coleridge's  "Christabel"  (1816),  however  difficult  it 
may  be  to  explain  the  resemblance.  Needless  to  say, 
''The  Culprit  Fay"  could  not  make  a  general  appeal  like 
that  of  "The  American  Flag,"  by  the  same  author — a 
rhetorical  and  manneristic  piece  that,  up  to  a  few  years 
ago,  was  on  the  lips  of  every  American  school-boy: 

When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height 
Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air, 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night, 
And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 

Set  them  where  ?  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  grandiose 
and  unprecise,  "The  American  Flag"  may  yet  be  yielded 
an  advantage  in  point  of  style  over  Key's  "  Star-Spangled 
Banner,"  with  which  one  naturally  compares  it. 

Fitz-Greene  Halleck. — The  final  quatrain  of  "The  Ameri 
can  Flag"  was  written  by  Drake's  associate  in  the  "Croaker 
Papers,"  Fitz-Greene  Halleck  (1790-1867).  Halleck  was 
a  witty  poet,  who  aimed  at  no  lasting  fame,  but  humor 
ously  chastised  the  passing  follies  of  New  York  society, 
much  as  Lord  Byron  scourged  society  in  London.  He 
wrote  clearly  and  gracefully,  and  was  greatly  overpraised 
in  his  time.  His  satiric  poem  "Fanny"  (1819)  was  highly 
popular.  "Marco  Bozzaris, "  a  lyric  recital  of  the  Byronic 
type,  portrayed  with  a  good  deal  of  life,  but  with  a  suspicion 
of  rant  too,  a  dramatic  incident  in  the  struggle  of  modern 
Greece  against  the  Turk.  His  tribute  to  Burns  (1827)  was 
warmly  approved  by  the  Scottish  bard's  sister:  "nothing 
finer, "  she  said  in  1855,  "has  been  written  about  Robert. " 
"Red  Jacket"  and  the  monody  on  "Drake"  also  belong  to 
Halleck' s  early  period.  In  fact,  his  main  activity  as  a  poet 
was  confined  to  the  ten  or  eleven  years  commencing  with 
the  death  of  Drake  (1820).  As  Allston  was  the  first  of  our 


The  Poets  255 

poets  to  arouse  much  admiration  abroad,  so  Halleck  was 
the  first  to  receive  notable  posthumous  honours  at  home. 
In  general,  he  owed  a  large  measure  of  his  inspiration  to 
Washington  Irving. 

James  Kirke  Paulding. — So  did  James  Kirke  Paulding 
(1779-1860),  though  his  "Lay  of  the  Scotch  Fiddle" 
(1813)  was  a  parody  of  Walter  Scott's  "Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel,"  and  though  his  title  to  enduring  fame,  as  he 
supposed,  was  an  epic,  "The  Backwoodsman"  (1818), 
representing  life  on  the  American  frontier.  Neither  the 
clever  ballad,  nor  the  prosy  epic,  nor  his  second  instal 
ment  of  Salmagundi  has  outwitted  the  envy  of  time.  In 
its  own  day  Paulding's  effort  to  repeat  the  first  success  of 
Irving  was  eclipsed  by  "The  Croakers"  of  Halleck  and 
Drake.  His  "Peter  Piper"  still  lingers. 

John  Howard  Payne. — A  case  similar  to  "Peter  Piper" 
is  that  of  a  song  in  "Clari"  (1823),  one  of  the  dramas 
by  John  Howard  Payne  (1791-1852).  Payne,  who  tried 
his  hand  at  various  pursuits,  was  a  friend  of  Irving,  and 
acquainted  with  Coleridge  and  Lamb.  At  one  time  he 
was  United  States  consul  at  Tunis.  As  an  actor  and  a 
journalist  he  knew  the  temper  of  his  American  public; 
hence  he  was  able  to  enjoy  a  considerable  reputation  as 
playwright.  His  "Brutus"  (1818)  was  well  received;  yet 
he  would  be  totally  forgotten  save  for  a  single  lyric  in 
"Clari,"  "Home,  Sweet  Home,"  which  successive  genera 
tions  of  his  countrymen  have  handed  down  as  an  heirloom 
of  the  people. 

Woodworih,  Morris,  Hoffman,  Willis,  etc. — Two  other 
writers  of  the  same  period,  now  known  chiefly  through  brief 
and  homely  songs  or  rhetorical  selections,  were  Samuel 
Woodworth  (1785-1842),  still  remembered  for  "The  Old 
Oaken  Bucket"  (1826),  and  George  P.  Morris  (1802-64), 


256  The  Nineteenth  Century 

whose  "Woodman,  Spare  That  Tree"  and  "The  Main 
Truck"  (otherwise  called  "A  Leap  for  Life")  have  re 
echoed  from  the  platform  of  many  a  village  schoolhouse, 
and  given  many  a  young  rustic  his  principal  conceptions  of 
impassioned  eloquence.  The  songs  of  Charles  Fenno  Hoff 
man  (1806-84),  while  by  no  means  so  familiar  as  these,  are 
not  at  all  inferior.  Hoffman  was  a  student  at  Columbia 
College,  bred  up  in  the  literary  traditions  of  New  York  City. 
So  also  were  James  W.  Eastburn  (1797-1819)  and  Robert  C. 
Sands  (1799-1832).  Under  a  rather  indefensible  nomen 
clature,  all  three  would  be  included  with  Paulding  and 
Halleck  as  members  of  the  "Knickerbocker  School,"  the 
bright  luminary  in  which  is  Irving  ("Diedrich  Knicker 
bocker").  To  these  we  may  add  McDonald  Clarke  (1798- 
1842),  "the  mad  poet,"  irritatingly  personal  in  his 
allusions  to  the  belles  of  the  metropolis;  Park  Benjamin 
(1809—64);  and  N.  P.  Willis  (1806-67),  whose  reign  of 
cleverness  succeeded  that  of  Halleck.  Flippant,  careless 
how  or  whom  he  hit,  Willis  made  an  extraordinary  name 
at  home,  and  was  able  to  create  a  stir  abroad.  In  America 
he  published  where  and  what  he  pleased,  for  the  editors 
were  glad  to  pay  him  well,  so  eager  were  people  to  read 
him.  But  he  had  the  reward  of  a  lightly  won  popularity: 
when  the  generation  for  whom  he  wrote  had  passed  away 
he  was  deservedly  neglected.  His  championship  of  Ameri 
can  literature  against  the  strictures  of  Lockhart  and 
Marryat,  and  the  redeeming  candour  of  his  opinions,  make 
poor  amends  for  his  abuse  of  talents  that  might  have  im 
proved,  rather  than  satisfied,  the  taste  of  the  garish  day. 

William  Cullen  Bryant. — However  different  in  aim  and 
permanence  from  the  last  mentioned  adherent  of  the 
"Knickerbocker  School,"  to  the  same  general  category 
may  be  assigned  William  Cullen  Bryant  (1794-1878),  who 
from  1826  until  his  death  was  an  active  force  in  the  literary 
life  of  New  York.  The  author  of  "  Thanatopsis "  and 


The  Poets  257 

one  of  the  best  verse  translations  of  Homer  was  born  in 
Cummington,  Massachusetts,  attended  a  local  school, 
was  taught  Latin  and  Greek  by  private  tutors,  two  clergy 
men  of  ability,  and  studied  for  part  of  a  year  at  Williams 
College,  where  the  standard  of  scholarship  was  then  low. 
Leaving  that  institution  in  1811,  he  made  ready  to  enter 
the  profession  of  law.  During  his  preparation  he  had  an 
interval  of  experience  as  adjutant  in  the  State  militia. 
After  that,  he  practised  as  a  lawyer  in  his  native  State,  at 
Plainfield  and  Great  Barrington,  until  1825,  when  he 
yielded  to  the  strong  propensity  of  nature,  and  took  up 
literature  for  the  business  of  life. 

As  a  mere  child,  Bryant  showed  an  exceptional  leaning 
toward  poetry.  He  was  unweariedly  studious,  and  an 
omnivorous  reader.  He  wrote  verses  before  he  was  nine; 
in  his  youth,  so  he  says,  he  varied  his  private  devotions 
from  the  ordinary  Calvinistic  models,  by  supplicating  that 
he  "might  receive  the  gift  of  poetic  genius  and  write 
verses  that  might  endure. "  The  gift  came  to  him  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Wordsworth's  "Lyrical  Ballads" 
(the  American  edition  of  1802),  whose  mastery  over  him 
he  afterwards  acknowledged,  and  bore  witness  to  in  his 
practice.  At  first,  however,  he  was  imbued  with  the  ten 
dencies  of  his  own  predecessors  in  America.  A  Federalist 
in  his  political  sympathies,  he  opposed  the  aims  of  Jeffer 
son's  administration — although  later  he  grew  to  be  a 
staunch  supporter  of  "  Jeffersonian  Democracy."  En 
couraged  by  his  father,  a  well-known  physician,  who  him 
self  indulged  in  verse,  young  Cullen,  before  he  was  fifteen, 
saw  in  print  his  political  satire  "The  Embargo"  (1808), 
a  work  in  the  manner  of  Freneau  and  Trumbull,  in  which 
Jefferson  was  invited  to  resign  the  presidency.  In  Words 
worth,  fortunately,  Byrant  had  a  model  choicer  than  the 
satirists.  He  became  acquainted  with  "Lyrical  Ballads" 
in  1810.  Sometime  in  the  autumn  of  1811,  his  inward 
eye  having  been  taught  to  see  the  operation  of  a  benign 


258  The  Nineteenth  Century 

and  healing  spirit  in  the  world  of  nature,  this  thoughtful 
youth,  now  about  to  begin  the  study  of  law,  and,  as  it 
were,  to  commence  the  effort  of  life,  was  moved  to  record 
his  sentiments  on  the  all-pervading  fact  of  death:  the 
universal  debt  is  not  an  evil;  to  pay  it  is  as  natural  as  to 
be  born;  and  to  obey  the  voice  of  nature,  to  confide  in 
her  will,  is  the  source  of  human  satisfaction.  That  is  the 
burden  of  "  Thanatopsis. " 

When  "Thanatopsis"  was  submitted  by  the  poet's 
father  to  The  North  American  Review  (in  1817),  people 
would  hardly  believe  that  such  an  exalted  strain  had  been 
conceived  outside  of  England.  "Thanatopsis"  and  "To 
a  Waterfowl"  (written  in  1815)  are  indeed  in  many  ways 
Wordsworthian ;  the  similarity  is  immediately  noticeable. 
Yet  the  similarity  is  not  complete.  In  the  first  place, 
they  are  founded,  and  very  definitely  founded,  upon  the 
natural  scenery  of  Bryant's  own  New  England  environ 
ment  ;  and  they  sprang  out  of  a  unified  individual  experience 
to  which  his  personal  observation  contributed  as  much 
as  his  reading.  But,  as  has  been  remarked  before,  the 
note  of  Bryant  is  a  less  joyous  note  than  that  of  his  great 
English  exemplar,  not  only  because  of  a  difference  in  the 
selection  of  subjects,  but  through  a  difference  in  the  treat 
ment  of  detail  as  well.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  in 
perfection  of  technique  a  boy  of  seventeen  could  equal  a 
poet  who  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  (when  Wordsworth  first 
became  at  all  generally  known  in  America)  was  virtually 
master  of  his  craft.  Moreover,  "Thanatopsis"  as  we  now 
have  it  is  actually  an  immense  improvement  upon  the 
version  that  came  out  in  The  North  American;  yet  in  finality 
of  expression  it  cannot  vie  with  the  "  Lines"  associated  with 
Tintern  Abbey,  not  to  speak  of  certain  portions  of  "  The  Pre 
lude"  or  "The  Excursion"  written  in  the  zenith  of  Words 
worth's  power.  Still,  "  Thanatopsis "  was  the  first  great 
American  poem ;  in  its  ultimate  form  it  bids  fair  to  please 
most  readers  in  all  ages.  The  majesty  of  Thucydides  is  bor- 


The  Poets  259 

rowed  in  the  conception  that  the  whole  earth  is  the  sepul 
chre  of  famous  men;  there  is  Homeric  splendour  of  epithet 
in  such  expressions  as  the  "  all-beholding  sun. "  The  "  heal 
ing  sympathy"  of  nature,  of  course,  is  Wordsworthianism 
pure  and  simple;  but  the  poem  as  a  whole  is  tinged  with 
a  pantheism  much  more  stoical  than  the  pantheism  of 
Wordsworth,  and  curiously  out  of  keeping  with  the  touch 
of  New  England  moralising  toward  the  end.  This  touch 
is  even  more  pronounced  in  the  verses  "To  a  Waterfowl." 

"To  a  Waterfowl"  was  published  with  several  other 
poems,  including  "  Thanatopsis, "  in  1821.  According  to 
that  wayward  genius  Hartley  Coleridge,  it  is  the  best 
short  poem  in  the  English  language;  a  perilously  sweep 
ing  judgment,  like  Shelley's  on  "France,"  the  magnificent 
ode  by  Hartley's  father.  At  all  events,  "To  a  Water 
fowl"  is  hardly  surpassed  by  any  of  Bryant's  later  work, 
and  probably  unsurpassed  by  anything  of  comparable 
subject  and  scope  ever  written  in  America. 

In  1821,  Bryant,  then  practising  law  at  Great  Bar- 
rington,  was  married  to  Miss  Frances  Fairchild.  In  1825, 
he  gave  up  the  law  and  a  secure  livelihood,  and,  removing 
to  New  York,  assumed  the  editorship  of  The  New  York 
Review.  After  a  brief  connection  with  The  United  States 
Review,  he  became  assistant  editor  of  The  Evening  Post; 
in  1829  he  was  made  editor-in-chief.  His  lifelong  guidance 
of  this  most  influential  paper  is  briefly  touched  upon 
elsewhere.  It  may  be  readily  thought  that  Bryant's 
prolonged  editorial  labours  interfered  with  his  subse 
quent  development  as  a  poet.  Yet  his  partial  ownership 
of  The  Post  finally  gave  him  abundant  means  for  travel 
and  a  widening  of  his  experience  in  his  own  and  foreign 
lands ;  and  his  habits  of  industry,  supported  by  a  temperate 
bodily  regime,  enabled  him  to  achieve  during  his  extended 
career  a  noble  literary  monument  outside  of  journalism. 

By  1832  he  was  ready  to  publish  another  edition  of 
his  "Poems,"  adding  more  than  eighty  pieces  that  were 


260  The  Nineteenth  Century 

new — notably,  the  "Forest  Hymn,"  the  "Song  of  Marion's 
Men,"  and  "The  Death  of  the  Flowers."  At  intervals  of 
a  few  years  (1834,  1836,  1842,  1844,  etc.)  other  editions 
or  volumes  followed;  giving  evidence  that  his  imagination 
was  not  dormant,  for  they  contained  in  each  case  material 
in  part  or  wholly  fresh.  Thus  the  "Poems"  of  1854  in 
cluded  "O  Mother  of  a  Mighty  Race"  and  "Robert  of 
Lincoln, "  the  latter  a  favourite  with  many,  though  inferior 
to  Bryant's  general  standard.  Of  the  "Thirty  Poems" 
issued  ten  years  later  (1864),  twenty-seven  were  new; 
the  presence  of  selections,  in  English,  from  Book  V  of 
the  Odyssey  is  worthy  of  particular  remark.  They  had 
already  appeared,  a  few  months  before,  in  The  Atlantic 
Monthly. 

The  achievement  of  Bryant's  declining  years  was  his 
translation  of  Homer.  He  had  at  various  times  amused 
himself  with  renderings  of  one  or  another  passage  that 
pleased  him  in  foreign  tongues.  He  was  an  ardent  ad 
mirer  of  the  Greek  epics.  He  was  dissatisfied  with  the 
versions  of  Cowper  and  Pope.  It  is  possible  that  he  was 
acquainted  with  the  counsels  of  Matthew  Arnold,  called 
forth  by  the  Homer  of  Francis  Newman.  The  favour  met 
by  his  attempts  with  the  Odyssey  encouraged  him  to  try 
his  hand  at  the  Iliad.  On  the  death  of  his  wife,  in  1866, 
he  felt  the  need  of  some  employment  to  distract  his  at 
tention,  and  resolved  to  translate  the  Iliad  entire.  By 
1869  he  had  finished  the  first  twelve  books,  at  the  rate 
of  from  forty  to  seventy-five  lines  a  day.  These  twelve 
books  were  published  in  February,  1870,  the  remainder 
of  the  Iliad  in  June.  By  the  first  of  July  he  was  engaged 
upon  the  Odyssey;  on  December  7,  1871,  he  sent  his 
printers  "the  twenty-fourth  and  concluding  book  of  [his] 
translation  of  Homer's  Odyssey,  together  with  the  table 
of  contents  for  the  second  volume."  To  misunderstand 
the  repression  of  feeling  in  these  simple  words,  with  which 
the  venerable  Bryant  takes  leave  of  his  final  work,  is  to 


The  Poets  261 

miss  the  hidden  fire  animating  his  whole  existence.  In  a 
great  poet  there  is  little  waste  of  energy  in  the  outward 
expression.  The  moment  feeling  shows  itself,  it  is  trans 
muted  into  artistic  form.  The  form  is  adequate,  but  it 
is  something  different  from  the  sentiment  that  gives  it 
life. 

The  excellence  of  Bryant's  blank- verse  translation  of 
Homer  is  not  a  theme  for  long  discussion  here.  He  aimed 
at  simplicity  and  faithfulness.  He  rejected  several  of  the 
customary  ornaments  of  modern  verse,  choosing  for  his 
medium  that  rhythm  which  is  most  nearly  related  to  the 
cadence  of  everyday  speech.  Tested  by  its  effect  on  the 
layman  of  the  present  day,  his  attempt  is  more  successful 
than  other  well-known  metrical  versions,  less  than  the 
cadenced  prose  of  translators,  like  Myers  and  Lang,  who 
have  profited  by  the  advice  of  Arnold  with  respect  to 
diction,  but  in  avoiding  the  trammels  of  metre  have  fol 
lowed  the  example  set  by  the  scholars  of  King  James 
in  the  Authorised  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  However, 
Bryant's  rendering  is  too  noble  a  piece  of  imaginative 
scholarship  to  be  passed  over. 

Bryant  spent  something  like  six  years  upon  his  Homer. 
He  survived  its  completion  by  six  years  more,  full  of 
honours,  rejoicing  in  a  hale  old  age,  still  visited  occasion 
ally  by  poetical  inspiration,  still  influential  in  the  political 
thought  of  his  nation,  able  at  four  score  and  four  to  make 
a  public  address  in  honour  of  the  Italian  patriot  Mazzini. 
During  this  address,  "his  uncovered  head  was  for  a  time 
exposed  to  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  Shortly  after,  while 
entering  a  house,  he  fell  backwards,  striking  his  head 
upon  the  stone  steps;  concussion  of  the  brain  and  para 
lysis  followed."  He  died  in  New  York,  June  12,  1878, 
and  was  buried  at  Roslyn,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  near 
the  beautiful  country  home  where  for  thirty-five  years  his 
literary  toils  had  been  "sweetened  to  his  taste." 

Owing  to  his  artistic  reserve,  Bryant  had  the  reputation 


262  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  a  temperamental  coldness,  a  reputation  that  is  belied 
both  by  the  tenderness  of  his  domestic  ties  and  by  his 
well  chosen  and  enduring  friendships.  His  patriotism  also 
was  unswerving.  If  he  "let  no  empty  gust  of  passion 
find  an  utterance  in  his  lay,"  nevertheless  he  knew  and 
valued 

.  .  .  feelings  of  calm  power  and  mighty  sweep, 

Like  currents  journeying  through  the  boundless  deep. 

He  was  a  devoted  lover  of  humanity  and  life;  he  was  a 
devoted  lover  of  his  art.  For  him,  art  and  life  were  one. 
It  is  easy  for  the  uninitiated  to  credit  him  with  a  lack  of 
warmth.  The  fully  emancipated  are  aware  what  union  of 
fire  and  self-restraint,  of  vigour  and  delicacy,  goes  to  the 
rearing  of  a  fabric  like  the  orderly  and  effective  career 
of  Bryant. 

Like  most,  or  all,  great  poets,  Bryant  wrote  admirable 
prose.  His  essays  in  criticism  have  already  been  alluded 
to.  As  a  stylist  he  was  indefatigably  painstaking  even  to 
the  smallest  detail:  "He  was  not  a  fluent  nor  a  very  pro 
lific  writer.  .  .  .  His  manuscripts,  as  well  as  his  proofs, 
were  commonly  so  disfigured  by  corrections  as  to  be  read 
with  difficulty  even  by  those  familiar  with  his  script."  His 
capacity  for  intense  application  was  a  partial  measure  of 
his  success  both  as  poet  and  as  critic.  For  oratory,  his 
legal  training  stood  him  in  good  stead,  and  his  later  prom 
inence  in  New  York  and  in  the  country  as  a  whole  gave 
him  many  an  occasion.  If  Bryant,  as  Matthew  Arnold  be 
lieved,  was  "facile  princeps"  among  American  poets,  this 
eminence  arose  from  no  merely  capricious  outburst  of 
genius;  it  was  the  natural  efflux  of  a  noble,  well  rounded, 
and  representative  human  life. 

Saxe,  Melville,  Alice  and  Phoebe  Gary. — After  Bryant 
it  is  convenient  to  speak  of  a  few  poets,  very  different 
from  him,  and  for  the  most  part  from  each  other,  whose 


The  Poets  263 

contemporaneous  presence  in  New  York  is  almost  the 
only  thing  that  connects  them.  John  G.  Saxe  (1816-87), 
a  native  of  Vermont,  in  his  time  was  counted  a  leader 
among  satirists.  He  staggers  now  under  the  accusation 
of  extreme  superficiality;  none  the  less  is  he  lively  and 
readable.  He  consciously  imitated  Hood ;  he  could  scarcely 
avoid  imitating  Wendell  Holmes.  Of  himself  he  had  a 
remarkable  turn  for  epigram  and  for  punning  in  rhyme. 
His  burlesque  adaptations  of  Ovid  are  smart  and  amus 
ing.  On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  Saxe  was  at  his 
best  in  "The  Proud  Miss  MacBride,"  where  he  girds  at 
an  upstart  aristocracy: 

Of  all  the  notable  things  on  earth, 

The  queerest  one  is  pride  of  birth, 

Among  our  "fierce  Democracie." 

Herman  Melville  (1819-91),  who  wrote  a  fascinating  ac 
count  ("Typee,"  1846)  of  his  stay  among  the  aborigines 
of  the  Marquesas,  also  published  "Battle-Pieces"  (1866) 
and  other  poems.  His  verse  is  less  objective  and  sincere 
than  his  prose.  Alice  Gary  (1820-71)  and  her  sister, 
Phoebe  (1824-71),  were  born  in  Ohio,  where  they  were 
locally  appreciated.  Removing  first  to  Philadelphia,  then 
to  New  York,  they  supported  themselves  by  their  pens. 
The  talents  of  Alice  Gary  were  manifestly  superior;  yet 
for  a  time,  yielding  to  her  admiration  of  Poe,  she  allowed 
the  element  of  harmonious  sound  in  her  poetry  to  over 
balance  that  of  meaning.  Her  hymns,  one  of  which  is 
almost  a  classic,  are  noble  in  their  purity  of  sentiment. 

Dana,  Sprague,  Hillhouse,  etc. — Although  his  life  and 
activity  were  centred  elsewhere,  Bryant,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  a  product  of  western  Massachusetts.  From  him  and 
the  city  of  his  adoption  we  naturally  turn  to  a  number  of 
writers  whose  careers  are  to  be  more  closely  identified 
with  New  England.  Many  of  these,  like  Richard  Henry 


264  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Dana  senior  (1787—1879),  of  Boston,  were  poets  only 
secondarily.  Dana  was  a  journalist  and  politician — an 
admirer  of  Wordsworth  and  a  lecturer  on  Shakespeare. 
An  edition  of  his  prose  and  verse  in  1833  contained  a 
poem,  "The  Buccaneer,"  inspired  by  Coleridge's  "Rime 
of  the  Ancient  Mariner."  His  shorter  poems  are  moral — 

Oh,  listen,  man! 

A  voice  within  us  speaks  the  startling  word, 
"Man,  thou  shalt  never  die" — 

and  are  mostly  tame  and  artificial.  Though  inferior  in 
native  talent  to  his  brother-in-law,  Washington  Allston, 
Dana  was  more  widely  known  as  a  writer,  partly  because 
of  his  ability  as  literary  critic.  His  verse  was  melancholy 
and  his  meditation  not  virile.  As  a  poet  he  won  a  smaller 
audience  than  did  Charles  Sprague  (1791-1875),  also  of 
Boston;  yet  it  is  not  now  easy  to  understand  why  Sprague's 
longest  poem,  "Curiosity"  (1823),  should  have  been 
"largely  read  and  quoted  in  this  country,  and  grossly 
plagiarised  in  England"  (Onderdonk).  James  A.  Hillhouse 
(1789-1841),  who  wrote  a  Biblical  drama  called  "Hadad" 
(1824),  published  "Dramas,  Discourses,  and  Other  Pieces" 
in  1839.  He  is  interesting  as  an  early  exponent  of  the 
dramatic  art  in  America.  His  style  shows  a  strange 
blending  of  elements  from  Lord  Byron  and  the  Scriptures. 
It  would  probably  be  fairer  to  judge  him  by  "Demetria" 
than  by ' '  Hadad. ' '  A  Byronic  sentimentalism  runs  through 
the  work  of  James  Gates  Percival  (1795-1856),  whose 
"Prometheus"  (1820)  luxuriates  in  the  sorrows  of  men 
and  the  vanity  of  human  wishes.  His  poetry  often  be 
lies  his  everyday  life,  since  for  all  his  facile  pessimism 
he  was  a  man  of  genuine  attainments  and  solid  interest 
in  science.  He  could  not  make  his  own  experience  the 
fundamental  thing  in  his  verse; — unlike  his  contemporary 
John  Pierpont  (1785-1866),  a  clergyman  of  Boston.  In 
his  hymns  and  patriotic  odes,  Pierpont  was  masculine  and 


The  Poets  265 

sane,  a  good  representative  of  the  New  England  aboli 
tionist,  as  may  be  gathered  from  "The  Fugitive  Slave's 
Apostrophe  to  the  North  Star."  "Warren's  Address  to 
the  American  Soldiers"  is  even  better  known,  and  still 
withholds  the  name  of  Pierpont  from  oblivion.  John 
G.  C.  Brainard  (1796-1828)  died  before  his  poetical  gift 
could  find  complete  expression.  He  dealt  with  the 
scenery  and  legends  of  Connecticut,  but  is  hardly  remem 
bered  outside  the  histories  of  American  literature. 

Mrs.  Brooks  and  Mrs.  Sigourney. — The  same  genera 
tion  produced  several  women  of  note,  whose  poetry  de 
mands  some  attention;  in  particular,  Lydia  Huntley 
Sigourney  (1791—1865),  a  prolific  maker  of  books,  not  to 
speak  of  "  more  than  two  thousand  articles  in  prose  and 
verse"  which  were  issued  during  her  long  and  quiet  life 
in  Hartford.  Mrs.  Sigourney  was  no  genius,  albeit  she 
passed  for  "the  American  Hemans."  She  was  a  person 
of  great  moral  worth  and  the  most  charitable  disposition. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  beauty  of  her  character 
was  responsible  for  her  extraordinary  vogue.  More  prob 
ably  the  attention  she  gave  to  the  legends  of  her  own 
country,  the  not  unwholesome  cast  of  sentimentalism  in 
her  thought,  and  her  readiness  to  contribute  verses  for 
any  occasion,  however  slight,  will  in  large  part  account 
for  the  unbounded  admiration  which  she  enjoyed.  In 
1822  appeared  her  poem,  in  five  cantos,  "Traits  of  the 
American  Aborigines";  her  "Lays  of  the  Heart"  were 
published  in  1848.  Besides  her  innumerable  shorter 
articles,  she  is  said  to  have  been  responsible  for  something 
like  fifty  volumes.  "Maria  del  Occidente"  (Mrs.  Maria 
Go  wen  Brooks,  1795-1845)  was  of  a  different  cast,  less 
homely  in  her  sentiments,  a  romantic  soul,  filled  with  the 
spirit  of  Southey  and  Moore,  leaning  toward  the  sensuous 
and  exotic.  When  she  bent  her  energies  to  verse,  as  in 
"Judith,  Esther,  and  Other  Poems"  (1820),  and  "  Zophiel, 


266  The  Nineteenth  Century 

or  The  Bride  of  Seven"  (1833) — a  story  based  on  the 
Apocryphal  Book  of  Tobit — she  showed  herself  far  re 
moved  from  Mrs.  Sigourney  and  "The  Power  of  Maternal 
Piety"  or  "The  Sunday  School."  On  the  whole,  the 
taste  of  "  Maria  del  Occidente,"  as  Southey  called  her, 
was  worse  than  that  of  "the  American  Hemans";  and  if 
Southey  termed  Mrs.  Brooks  "the  most  impassioned  and 
most  imaginative  of  all  poetesses,"  he  paid  an  astounding 
tribute  to  his  own  acumen  as  a  critic.  Emma  H.  Wil- 
lard  (1787-1870),  like  Mrs.  Sigourney,  was  prominent  as 
an  educator,  accomplishing  more  as  the  head  of  a  female 
seminary  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  than  by  her  writings.  She  was 
the  author  of  "  Rocked  in  the  Cradle  of  the  Deep."  In 
the  next  generation  were  Sarah  H.  Whitman  (1803-78) 
and  Frances  S.  Osgood  (1811-50),  who  composed  verse 
not  lacking  in  merit,  but  who  are  recalled  rather  for  their 
championship  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe.  Mrs.  Whitman  was  at 
one  time  betrothed  to  him. 

Minor  Poets  of  New  England. — Among  the  minor 
New  England  poets  who  came  slightly  later,  was  Samuel 
Longfellow  (1819—92) — younger  brother  of  Henry  W.  Long 
fellow — a  hymn-writer  of  singular  purity.  Sylvester  Judd 
(1813-53),  a  Unitarian  minister,  wrote  an  epic  entitled 
"Philo"  (1850).  William  Wetmore  Story  (1819-95),  who 
edited  the  life  and  letters  of  his  distinguished  father,  Chief 
Justice  Story,  forsook  the  bar  at  an  early  age  and  went  to 
Italy  to  engage  in  sculpture.  He  was  a  poet  of  refinement, 
touched  with  melancholy,  intellectual  rather  than  passion 
ate — yet  with  a  fondness  for  the  intangible — influenced 
by  Longfellow  and  Holmes,  by  Tennyson  and  Browning. 
In  verse,  his  chief  works  were  "Poems"  (1847),  "Graffiti 
d'ltalia"  (1868),  "A  Roman  Lawyer  in  Jerusalem"  (1870), 
"He  and  She"  (1883),  and  "Poems"  (1886).  Among  his 
individual  pieces  "  Cleopatra"  seems  to  be  the  best  known. 
Theophilus  W.  Parsons  (1819-92)  shows  a  similar  Con- 


The  Poets  267 

tinental  influence,  whose  most  valuable  result  was  his  free 
translation  of  Dante's  "Inferno"  (cantos  i-x,  1843,  com 
pleted  in  1867);  this  was  preceded  by  his  fine  lines  "On  a 
Bust  of  Dante"  (1841),  which  are  justly  admired.  Henry 
H.  Brownell  (1820-72)  attracted  notice  by  a  poem  on 
Farragut,  and  through  Farragut's  good  offices  entered  the 
United  States  Navy.  His  "War  Lyrics  and  Other  Poems" 
(1866)  contained  a  stirring  piece,  "The  River  Fight,"  on 
the  exploits  of  Farragut,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  Tenny 
son's  "  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade." 

Poetry  in  the  South. — The  major  poets  of  New  England, 
Longfellow,  Lowell,  Whittier,  Emerson,  and  perhaps  one 
or  two  others,  constitute  the  one  group  in  America  that 
may  rightfully  be  dignified  with  the  name  of  school. 
Before  approaching  them,  however,  let  us  give  some  con 
sideration  to  the  poets  of  the  South. 

Though  the  institution  of  slavery  gave  the  dominant 
classes  in  the  Southern  States  a  leisure  comparable  to  that 
enjoyed  by  classic  Greece,  plantation  life  was  not  favour 
able  to  a  thorough  and  imaginative  education;  nor  were 
there  great  civic  centres  to  collect,  for  mutual  inspiration, 
such  individuals  as  showed  artistic  and  literary  bent. 
Furthermore,  in  modern  times  most  of  the  poets  have 
been  furnished  by  a  restless  and  aspiring  middle  class, 
which  was  virtually  lacking  in  the  South.  Among  the 
owners  of  plantations,  personal  ambition  rarely  soared 
much  higher  than  local,  state,  or  sectional  politics,  and 
political  and  occasional  oratory,  with  some  noteworthy 
exceptions,  was  flamboyant  and  insincere.  Save  for  a 
few  noteworthy  exceptions,  accordingly,  the  career  of 
poet  languished,  and  literature  of  a  high  order  failed  of 
appreciation.  The  leading  poets  of  the  South  realised 
only  too  well  the  weight  of  inertia  against  which  they 
strove,  in  a  civilisation  where  the  odds  were  continually 
against  their  success. 


268  The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  Forerunners. — Early  and  minor  poets  in  the  South 
need  not  long  detain  us.  William  Crafts  (1789-1826),  of 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  a  graduate  of  Harvard,  and 
an  orator  of  repute,  composed  a  "  Raciad,"  or  epic  on 
horse-racing,  and  "  Sullivan's  Island."  His  "  Miscellaneous 
Writings"  (1828)  were  published  posthumously.  William 
J.  Grayson  (1788-1863),  who  was  more  voluminous,  at 
tempted  in  his  poem  "The  Hireling  and  the  Slave"  (1856) 
to  represent  slavery  as  a  preferable  state  for  the  negro. 
Richard  H.  Wilde  (1789-1847),  Edward  C.  Pinkney  (1802- 
28),  George  H.  Calvert  (1803-89),  Philip  P.  Cooke  (1816-50) 
and  others,  show  a  range  of  imitation  running  all  the  way 
from  Byron  through  Scott  and  Moore  to  Tennyson.  Cooke's 
"  Florence  Vane  "  was  warmly  admired  by  Poe.  Albert  Pike 
(1809-91),  should  be  remembered  as  the  author  of  "  Dixie," 
which,  "  set  to  a  popular  air  which  has  been  traced  back  to 
slavery  times  in  New  York  State,  became,  in  a  multitude  of 
variations,  a  Southern  Marseillaise"  (Onderdonk). 

Timrod,  Hayne,  and  Simms. — Of  a  high  order  was 
the  poetry  of  that  champion  of  the  Southern  cause  Henry 
B.  Timrod  (1829-67).  Denied  by  fortune  the  sort  of 
education  that  he  craved,  striving  throughout  much  of 
his  life  with  poverty  and  sickness,  and  finally  defeated, 
saddened  by  personal  bereavement  as  well  as  by  the 
downfall  of  the  South,  Timrod  died  before  he  could  make 
adequate  report  of  his  endowments.  His  volume  of 
"Poems"  (1860),  issued  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  was  almost  unnoticed;  and  even  yet  he  has  not 
obtained  the  recognition  due  him.  His  devotion  to  the 
South  was  not  greater  than  his  reverence  for  his  art. 
Few  of  our  poets  have  so  clearly  understood  themselves 
and  their  craft.  Unusual  courage  breathes  in  all  he 
wrote.  In  the  year  of  his  death,  a  prey  to  disease  and 
sorrow,  he  could  say  to  the  Confederate  soldiers  buried 
"At  Magnolia  Cemetery": 


The  Poets  269 

Sleep  sweetly  in  your  humble  graves, 

Sleep,  martyrs  of  a  fallen  cause; 
Though  yet  no  marble  column  craves 

The  pilgrim  here  to  pause. 

In  seeds  of  laurel  in  the  earth 

The  blossom  of  your  fame  is  blown, 

And  somewhere,  waiting  for  its  birth, 
The  shaft  is  in  the  stone. 

Timrod's  works  were  brought  to  light  again  in  1873 
by  Paul  Hamilton  Hayne  (1830-86),  who,  prior  to  the 
war,  had  united  with  Simms  and  Timrod  to  erect,  if  pos 
sible,  the  drooping  spirit  of  poetry  in  the  South.  Hayne' s 
"Poems"  (1855)  and  "Sonnets  and  Other  Poems"  (1857) 
had  a  chance  to  make  their  way  before  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities;  and  he  survived  the  conflict  long  enough  to 
publish  "Legends  and  Lyrics"  (1872)  and  "The  Mountain 
of  the  Lovers,  and  Other  Poems"  (1873).  A  complete 
edition  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1882.  "The  Laureate 
of  the  South,"  as  he  was  called,  was  an  enthusiast  in  sub 
tropical  life  and  scenery,  a  word-painter  and  word-musician 
after  the  manner  of  Poe.  His  music  is  more  obvious  than 
Timrod's  and  not  so  likely  to  please  a  delicate  ear;  and  he 
did  not  have  Timrod's  unity  and  clearness  of  conception. 

Less  careful  still  in  his  workmanship,  and  still  more 
lacking  in  concentration,  was  the  third  of  the  trio,  William 
Gilmore  Simms  (1806-70).  Simms  was  a  most  abundant 
writer,  known  later  for  his  novels  and  biographies  rather 
than  his  poems.  In  his  earlier  poetry  he  was  under  the 
sway  of  Byron  and  Moore.  His  scanty  advantages  in  the 
way  of  schooling  were  atoned  for  in  part  by  voluminous 
indiscriminate  reading;  yet  he  never  overcame  certain 
defects  in  thinking  to  which  self-taught  men  are  prone. 
His  first  publication  was  "Lyrical  and  Other  Poems" 
(1827).  "Atalantis"  (1832),  a  closet-drama  in  blank 
verse,  in  its  general  structure  harks  back  to  Shelley's 
"Prometheus  Unbound."  His  selected  works,  in  nineteen 


270  The  Nineteenth  Century 

volumes,  were  published  in  1859.  Simms'  commanding 
presence,  the  vigour  of  his  personality,  his  determination 
to  conquer  all  obstacles  in  his  own  path,  and  to  vitalise 
the  literary  atmosphere  of  the  South,  make  him  an  impres 
sive,  even  heroic,  figure. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe— The  life  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  (1809- 
49)  is  duly  recounted  in  another  place,  where  his  prose 
fiction  is  handled  at  some  length.  When  Poe  ran  away 
from  the  ledgers  in  his  guardian's  office,  he  carried  with 
him  in  manuscript  the  first  heir  of  his  invention,  "Tamer 
lane  and  Other  Poems,"  for  which  he  found  a  publisher  at 
Boston  (1827).  "Al  Aaraaf,  Tamerlane,  and  Minor  Po 
ems"  followed  in  1829.  In  1831,  the  year  of  his  discharge 
from  West  Point,  appeared  the  volume  of  "Poems" 
with  which  Poe  thought  to  win  the  interest  of  the  cadets. 
Thereafter,  most  of  his  poetry  first  saw  the  light  in  various 
periodicals;  for  example,  "The  Raven"  (1845)  m  the 
New  York  Evening  Mirror,  "The  Bells"  (1849)  in  Sartain's 
Magazine,  "Annabel  Lee"  (1849)  m  The  New  York  Tribune. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer,  Poe's  verse  is 
generally  rated  above  its  value,  even  for  those  qualities 
in  which  it  is  supposed  particularly  to  excel.  Certain 
poetical  gifts  this  author  unquestionably  had  in  abun 
dance.  He  had  the  copia  verborum  which  is  indispensable 
to  every  literary  artist.  His  sensations  were  vivid,  if  not 
numerous.  He  knew  how  to  choose  the  symbols  with 
which  to  attain  his  ends.  If  we  are  to  trust  the  substance 
of  his  remarks  in  "The  Philosophy  of  Composition,"  and 
of  those  which  he  made  regarding  "The  Raven,"  his  choice 
and  manipulation  of  literary  artifice  were  for  the  most  part 
very  conscious.  He  was  able  through  the  use  of  carefully 
selected  diction  and  imagery  to  produce  in  his  reader  pre 
cisely  the  shade  of  feeling — the  glimmer  of  the  supernatural, 
the  sense  of  grey  and  subdued,  occasionally  the  sense  of 
Weird  and  poignant,  grief--which  he  desired.  He  never 


The  Poets  271 

forgets  the  music  of  his  words,  and  through  habit,  almost 
without  trying,  he  can  write  continuously  in  a  minor  key. 
And  yet,  his  music  is  not  inevitable  enough,  nor  does  it 
undergo  enough  variation,  or  variation  sufficiently  delicate. 
It  is  too  forced,  too  repetitious.  His  effects  all  lie  within 
narrow  limits,  and  he  runs  his  gamut  over  and  over  again. 
This  is  altogether  aside  from  his  failure  to  make  his  music 
grow  out  of  that  strong  underlying  poetical  good  sense 
which  is  to  be  confidently  expected  of  every  great  imagina 
tion.  People  too  often  forget  how  far  Poe  falls  short  of  his 
master,  Coleridge,  in  the  mere  element  of  harmonious 
sound ;  just  as  they  too  often  forget  how  far  Coleridge  falls 
short  of  his  -master,  Milton,  in  the  union  of  ethereal  as  well 
as  sonorous  cadences  with  a  finely  modulated  or  robust 
thought  and  sentiment.  Were  Poe's  appeals  to  the  external 
senses  more  wonderful  than  they  are,  he  would  still  lag 
behind  those  poets — and  in  the  history  of  literature  they 
are  not  after  all  so  few — who  can  touch  every  chord, 
whether  sad  or  joyous,  known  to  the  human  ear,  and  still 
maintain  that  basis  of  firm  reason  without  which  human 
communication  ceases  to  be  broadly  human.  The  intellect 
also  has  its  music,  lacking  which  no  poetry  has  ever  long 
survived. 

Furthermore,  all  allowance  being  made  for  the  tragic 
outcome  of  Poe's  career,  for  the  part  of  his  fate  which 
was  not  the  outgrowth  of  his  own  character,  or  could 
not,  humanly  considered,  be  attributed  at  some  point  in 
his  development  to  his  own  will,  his  poetry  is  not  up 
lifting.  True,  in  his  handling  of  material  he  is,  in  the 
ordinary  acceptation,  entirely  clean.  That  is,  he  is 
wholly  free  from  obscenity,  as  he  is  free  also  from  that 
more  perilous  seeming  cleanness  which  so  often  cloaks 
real  impurity.  Nevertheless  may  he  be  dangerous  food 
for  those  whom  he  most  readily  attracts.  Poe  is  essen 
tially  pessimistic,  hopeless,  toward  general  human  ex 
perience.  His  favourite  topic  is  death ;  and  his  vision  does 


2 72  The  Nineteenth  Century 

not  pierce  beyond  the  worm  and  the  grave.  Nay,  like 
his  predecessors  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  he 
luxuriates  in  the  tomb  and  the  charnel.  As  in  his  stories, 
so  in  his  verse,  though  less  patently,  he  follows  some 
of  the  most  pernicious  motives  in  art  that  the  older 
civilisation  afforded  his  age.  And  it  is  the  lethal  progeny 
— Baudelaire  and  the  rest — of  that  movement  in  European 
literature  typified  by  Ann  Radcliffe  and  "Monk"  Lewis 
that  has  been  quickest  to  take  up  with  Poe  and  exploit 
him  abroad.  We  may  seek  to  explain  and  exculpate 
him;  we  may  sorrow  for  his  blighted  life;  but  the  fact 
remains  that  what  Poe  wrote  sprang  out  of  his  career, 
hence,  on  the  whole,  was  morbid.  The  flowers  of  his 
poetry  are  the  flowers  of  Lethe.  The  stimulants  with 
which  he  catches  the  reader  are  violent  and  exciting. 
His  ideal  of  intellectual  beauty  was  detached  and  un 
natural.  It  is  little  wonder,  then,  that  he  would  not 
enter  into  sympathy  with  the  English  poet  by  whom  the 
normal  Bryant  was  inspired,  and  whose  works,  the  most 
normalising  and  healthful  influence  that  American  litera 
ture  thus  far  has  felt,  were  purposely  reactive  against 
artificial  and  abnormal  stimulation. 

Sidney  Lanier. — Among  the  representatives  of  the 
"New  South,"  Sidney  Lanier  (1842-81),  musician,  poet, 
teacher  of  English,  is  easily  foremost.  He  was  born  in 
Macon,  Georgia,  and  received  his  education  at  Oglethorpe 
College,  where,  on  graduating,  he  became  a  tutor;  he 
volunteered  in  the  Confederate  Army  (1860),  toward  the 
end  of  the  war  was  captured,  and  perhaps  owed  his  subse 
quent  ill-health  to  his  imprisonment  of  five  months  at 
Point  Lookout.  When  the  war  was  over,  he  taught  again, 
in  Alabama,  read  law,  supported  himself  by  his  music — 
he  was  an  adept  on  the  flute — wrote  for  magazines,  and 
by  private  study  in  Baltimore  eventually  fitted  himself  to 
take  a  lectureship  in  English  literature  at  Johns  Hop- 


The  Poets  273 

kins  University.  Courageous  in  his  struggle  with  adverse 
circumstances,  buoyant  and  energetic  in  spite  of  his 
long  battle  with  disease,  Lanier  greatly  resembles  Timrod. 
Like  Timrod,  too,  dying  early,  he  left  but  a  slender  volume 
of  poetry,  uneven  in  excellence,  an  earnest  of  what  he 
might  have  accomplished,  hardly  a  standard  by  which  to 
appraise  him.  Lanier's  was  a  delicate  and  sensuous  rather 
than  a  profound  imagination;  however,  both  in  his  obser 
vation  of  external  nature  and  in  the  thoroughness  and 
extent  of  his  acquaintance  with  general  literature,  he  was 
unusually  well  prepared  for  the  office  of  poet.  His  interest 
in  science  fortified  and  disciplined  his  contemplation  of 
the  outer  world ;  his  poetical  instinct  was  nurtured  through 
industrious  and  select  reading;  and  he  brought  to  bear 
upon  his  own  literary  craftsmanship,  and  upon  the  literary 
work  of  others,  the  ear  of  a  trained  musician.  His  musical 
ear  helped  him  greatly  in  his  studies  on  metre,  where  his 
contributions  to  scholarship  are  distinctly  more  valuable 
than  in  his  lectures  on  the  English  novel.  Deeply  sym 
pathetic  and  generous  and  sane  in  all  relations  of  life, 
Lanier  had  a  subtle  understanding  for  the  realm  that  lies 
outside  the  haunts  of  men — for  the  domain  of  wild  fauna 
and  flora,  for  the  seldom  heeded  and  the  escaping  phe 
nomena  of  the  woods  and  the  marsh  and  the  sea.  The  poor 
reception  given  to  his  "Tiger  Lilies"  (1867),  a  novel  based 
on  experiences  in  the  army,  did  not  dishearten  him.  In 
1875  he  definitely  announced  himself  by  his  poem  entitled 
"  Corn,"  published  in  Lippincott's  Magazine,  a  vision  of 
the  South  restored  through  agriculture.  This  brought 
him  the  opportunity  of  writing  the  "Centennial  Cantata" 
for  the  Philadelphia  Exposition,  where  he  expressed  the 
faith  he  now  had  in  the  future  of  the  reunited  nation. 
The  Cantata  finished,  he  immediately  began  a  much 
longer  centennial  ode,  his  "Psalm  of  the  West"  (1876), 
which  appeared  in  Lippincott's  Magazine,  and  which, 
with  "Corn"  and  "The  Symphony,"  made  part  of  a  small 

18 


274  The  Nineteenth  Century 

volume  published  in  the  autumn  of  1876.  Lanier's  im 
portant  critical  works  were  the  product  of  the  years  be 
tween  1876  and  his  death.  Some  three  years  after  he 
died,  his  poems  were  collected  and  edited  by  his  wife. 
If  we  had  to  rely  upon  one  poem  to  keep  alive  the  fame 
of  Lanier,  thinks  his  biographer,  Mr.  Edwin  Minis,  we 
"  could  single  out  '  The  Marshes  of  Glynn '  with  assurance 
that  there  is  something  so  individual  and  original  about 
it,  and  that,  at  the  same  time,  there  is  such  a  roll  and 
range  of  verse  in  it,  that  it  will  surely  live  not  only  in 
American  poetry  but  in  English."  "He  is  the  poet  of 
the  marshes  as  surely  as  Bryant  is  of  the  forests." 

Maurice  Thompson  and  Mrs.  Preston. — Our  notice  of 
Southern  writers  may  conclude  with  Maurice  Thompson 
and  Mrs.  Margaret  Preston.  James  Maurice  Thompson 
(1844—1901)  is  commonly  associated  with  the  Middle 
West,  since  he  was  born  and  died  in  Indiana.  His  early 
life,  however,  was  spent  in  Kentucky  and  Georgia,  he 
saw  service  in  the  Confederate  Army,  and  much  of  his 
verse  and  prose  carries  the  stamp  of  his  experiences  in 
the  South  and  his  acquaintance  with  Southern  literature. 
He  was  a  lawyer  by  profession,  but  by  instinct  a  natural 
scientist.  In  1885  he  was  appointed  State  Geologist  of  In 
diana.  From  1890  on  he  was  connected  with  the  New  York 
Independent,  His  style  was  crisp  and  neat,  sometimes  over- 
elaborate  ;  but  he  kept  an  eye  on  the  thing  he  was  talking 
about,  so  that  in  general  what  he  has  said  of  nature  is  very 
acceptable.  His  devotion  to  the  pastimes  of  fishing  and 
archery  gave  him  a  good  deal  of  literary  material.  His 
extensive  and  exact  knowledge  of  the  ways  of  birds  enters 
into  many  of  his  poems,  as  for  example  "  An  Early  Blue 
bird."  The  strain  of  regenerate  patriotism  in  "  Lincoln's 
Grave"  is  the  same  that  we  find  in  Lanier.  Mrs.  Preston 
(1820-97)  was  tne  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Junkin,  founder 
of  Lafayette  College  and  afterward  president  of  Washington 


The  Poets  275 

and  Lee  University,  in  Virginia.  Before  her  marriage,  in 
1857,  she  had  done  some  writing.  In  1866  she  published 
"  Beechenbrook,  a  Rhyme  of  the  War";  in  1870,  "Old 
Songs  and  New."  Her  "Cartoons"  (1875)  and  "Colonial 
Ballads"  (1887)  show  her  at  her  best.  She  has  been  styled 
"the  greatest  Southern  poetess";  there  have  been  few 
claimants  to  dispute  the  title. 

Major  Poets  of  New  England. — With  this  caption  we 
return  to  the  main  stream  of  American  verse,  and  reach 
the  men  whose  lives  and  works  may  be  said  to  justify  a 
connected  account  of  poetry  in  the  United  States.  We 
shall  take  up  Longfellow  first.  Whatever  vicissitudes  his 
literary  standing  has  suffered,  or  is  likely  to  suffer,  he  is 
bound  for  a  long  time  to  appear  as  the  central  figure 
among  our  poets. 

Henry  Wadsworih  Longfellow. — The  subject  of  this 
sketch  was  born  in  Portland,  Maine,  February  27,  1807. 
He  came  of  a  gifted  stock.  His  father  was  a  lawyer  of 
ability,  and  his  mother  a  woman  of  artistic  temperament 
and  varied  attainments,  so  that  the  boy  grew  up  in  an 
atmosphere  of  study  and  refinement.  Longfellow  was  a 
wise  and  gentle  child,  fond  of  books,  not  too  sensitive, 
always  normal  and  sane.  Until  1821  he  went  to  school 
in  Portland;  in  1822  he  entered  the  sophomore  class  at 
Bowdoin  College.  Here  he  attained  a  good  rank  in 
scholarship,  and  became  acquainted,  not  intimately,  with 
the  future  novelist  Hawthorne.  Upon  graduation  in  1825, 
Longfellow  went  abroad,  in  order  to  fit  himself  for  a  pro 
fessorship  in  modern  languages  which  lay  open  to  him 
at  Bowdoin.  He  visited  France,  Germany,  England,  and 
the  South  of  Europe;  on  his  return  in  1829  he  gave  him 
self  up  with  ardour  and  success  to  the  activity  of 
teaching.  In  1831  he  was  married  to  Miss  Mary  S.  Potter. 
In  1 83  5 ,  having  received  an  invitation  to  the  chair  of  modem 


276  The  Nineteenth  Century 

languages  at  Harvard,  he  went  abroad  again  for  further 
travel  and  study,  this  time  mainly  to  Germany  and  the 
North.  The  death  of  his  young  wife,  shortly  after  their 
arrival  in  Holland,  filled  his  cup  with  bitterness,  but  did 
not  swerve  him  from  preparation  for  the  duties  of  his  chair 
at  Cambridge.  Nevertheless,  as  may  be  read  beneath  the 
surface  of  his  romance  "Hyperion,"  his  determination  that 
he  must  ultimately  become  a  poet,  and  not  end  as  a  teacher 
in  the  classroom,  can  be  traced  to  this  critical  epoch  in 
his  life. 

Longfellow  taught  at  Harvard  from  1836  until  1854, 
with  but  one  intermission,  in  1842,  when  on  account  of 
his  health  he  made  his  third  trip  to  Europe.  In  1843 
he  married  Miss  Frances  E.  Appleton,  whom  he  had  met 
in  Switzerland  sixteen  years  before,  and  whose  presence 
and  influence  are  likewise  traceable  in  "Hyperion." 
Through  the  generosity  of  his  father-in-law,  he  was  able 
to  establish  a  home  in  Craigie  House,  where  he  had  been 
a  lodger  since  1837,  a  dwelling  of  Revolutionary  fame. 
For  a  while,  Longfellow's  study  was  the  room  once  oc 
cupied  by  Washington.  Here,  surrounded  by  his  books 
and,  as  the  years  went  on,  by  a  growing  family  circle,  he 
lived  in  comfort  and  felicity.  His  reputation  spread,  and 
the  number  of  his  acquaintances  increased.  Among  his 
friends  he  reckoned  Sparks  and  Prescott,  the  historians; 
Ticknor,  his  predecessor  at  Harvard,  and  Lowell,  who 
afterward  succeeded  Longfellow;  Fields,  Emerson,  Holmes, 
and  Hawthorne;  Felton,  Sumner,  Agassiz,  and  Norton. 
He  read  and  wrote  variously  and  extensively;  he  counted 
it  a  privilege  to  be  interpreting  Dante  "to  young  hearts." 
In  time,  however,  his  duties  as  a  teacher,  above  all  the 
preparation  of  lectures,  gradually  wore  upon  him.  He 
felt  that  he  could  not  serve  two  masters,  and  he  clave  to 
poetry.  At  length,  in  1854,  he  resigned  his  professorship, 
to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  authorship.  Seven  years 
later,  under  the  most  distressing  circumstances,  he  lost  his 


The  Poets  277 

second  wife.  From  this  catastrophe,  Longfellow,  though 
he  eventually  regained  his  outward  cheerfulness,  never  in 
wardly  recovered.  "He  bore  his  grief  with  courage  and 
in  silence.  Only  after  months  had  passed  could  he  speak 
of  it;  and  then  only  in  fewest  words."  In  1868  he  made 
his  last  visit  to  Europe,  where  he  was  met  with  "a  flood 
of  hospitality. "  In  London  "  he  breakfasted  with  Mr.  Glad 
stone,  Sir  Henry  Holland,  the  Duke  of  Argyll;  lunched 
with  Lord  John  Russell  at  Richmond,  .  .  .  received 
midnight  calls  from  Bulwer  and  Aubrey  de  Vere.  .  .  . 
The  Queen  received  him  cordially  and  without  ceremony  in 
one  of  the  galleries  of  Windsor  Castle."  After  a  visit  of 
two  days  with  Tennyson,  Longfellow  and  his  party  crossed 
to  the  Continent.  They  spent  the  summer  in  Switzerland, 
the  autumn  in  France,  the  winter  in  Florence  and  Rome. 
When  he  returned  to  America,  he  "found  Cambridge  in 
all  its  beauty;  not  a  leaf  faded."  "How  glad,"  he  wrote, 
"I  am  to  be  at  home.  The  quiet  and  rest  are  welcome 
after  the  surly  sea.  But  there  is  a  tinge  of  sadness  in  it, 
also."  The  last  ten  years  of  Longfellow's  life  were  quiet 
and  serene,  with  a  tinge  of  sadness  in  them,  also.  Yet 
they  were  filled  with  literary  projects  which,  for  a  man 
of  his  age,  he  carried  through  with  remarkable  energy; 
and,  until  toward  the  end,  his  correspondence  was  enor 
mous.  In  1880  his  health  showed  sings  of  failing.  In 
1882  he  suffered  a  brief  and  sharp  illness,  and  on  Friday, 
March  24,  "he  sank  quietly  in  death."  "The  long,  busy, 
blameless  life  was  ended." 

At  the  age  of  thirteen,  Longfellow  printed  four  stanzas, 
"The  Battle  of  Lovell's  Pond,"  in  a  corner  of  The  Port- 
land  Gazette.  Within  the  next  six  years  he  wrote  a  con 
siderable  number  of  poems  for  The  United  States  Literary 
Gazette.  By  1833,  in  addition  to  text-books  for  his  classes, 
he  had,  in  various  magazines,  published  original  articles, 
stories,  and  several  reviews;  among  them  an  important 
estimate  of  poetry,  especially  the  poetry  of  America,  in 


278  The  Nineteenth  Century 

a  notice  of  Sidney's  "Defense  of  Poesy"  contributed  to 
The  North  American  Review;  as  well  as  translations  from 
the  Spanish  of  Manrique  and  others,  with  an  "Introductory 
Essay  on  the  Moral  and  Devotional  Poetry  of  Spain" 
(1833).  "Outre-Mer,"  first  published  as  a  series  of 
sketches,  appeared  in  book  form  in  1835,  "Hyperion" 
in  1839,  and  "Voices  of  the  Night"  in  the  same  year  as 
"Hyperion."  "Voices  of  the  Night"  made  Longfellow's 
reputation  as  a  poet;  the  edition  was  immediately  ex 
hausted.  "Hyperion,"  which  eventually  sold  well,  though 
at  present  it  is  not  often  enough  read,  was  at  first  un 
fortunate,  the  publisher  failing  before  this  book  had  a 
fair  start.  Of  Longfellow's  better  known  works,  published 
during  the  latter  half  of  his  lifetime,  his  "Ballads  and 
Other  Poems"  appeared  in  1841,  "The  Spanish  Student" 
in  1843,  "Evangeline"  in  1847,  "Kavanagh,"  another 
prose  romance,  in  1849,  "Hiawatha"  in  1855,  "The 
Courtship  of  Miles  Standish "  in  1858,  "The  Golden  Legend " 
in  1872,  and  "Aftermath"  in  1873.  The  "Tales  of  a  Way 
side  Inn"  came  out  in  1863,  1872,  and  1873,  the  First 
Day  separately,  the  Second  and  the  Third  Day  in  company 
with  other  writings. 

In  consequence,  it  may  be,  of  a  latter-day  tendency 
to  disparage  Longfellow's  verse,  there  has  been  an  effort 
of  late  to  rehabilitate  his  prose;  not  so  much,  indeed,  for 
its  own  sake,  as  for  its  importance  in  the  history  of  our 
literature.  "Hyperion,"  for  example,  is  not  merely  what 
Longfellow  called  it,  "a  sincere  book,  showing  the  pas 
sage  of  a  morbid  mind  into  a  purer  and  healthier  state"; 
that  is,  it  is  not  merely  the  veiled  autobiography  of  our 
most  popular  poet.  Its  final  reception  and  large  sale  are 
a  proof  that  in  the  forties  not  a  few  Americans  could  be 
interested  in  German  student  life  and  in  the  discussion  of 
Continental  literatures.  With  this  romance,  one  might 
say,  began  an  American  literature  that,  without  ceasing  to 
be  native,  could  claim  to  be  cosmopolitan.  Possibly  no 


The  Poets  279 

single  work  produced  in  this  country  ever  effected  more 
in  the  dissemination  of  European  culture.  Its  faults  are 
on  the  surface.  The  style  is  not  seldom  forced  and  florid, 
having  the  colour  of  Jean  Paul  rather  than  Irving;  and  the 
sentiment  here  and  there  is  gushing.  Nevertheless,  parts 
of  "Hyperion"  are  good  prose,  the  prose  of  a  scholar 
who  is  aware  of  what  he  is  saying  and  of  a  poet  who 
knows  how  to  avoid  scraps  of  metre  when  he  is  not  writ 
ing  verse.  The  poet-scholar  knows,  too,  on  what  sort  of 
basis  the  best  poetry  is  founded:  "O  thou  poor  author- 
ling!  .  .  .  to  cheer  thy  solitary  labour,  remember  that 
the  secret  studies  of  an  author  are  the  sunken  piers  upon 
which  is  to  rest  the  bridge  of  his  fame,  spanning  the  dark 
waters  of  Oblivion.  They  are  out  of  sight;  but  without 
them  no  superstructure  can  stand  secure." 

The  nature  of  Longfellow's  secret  studies  is  partly  in 
dicated  by  the  extent  of  his  published  translations.  Al 
though  one  could  hardly  aver  that  the  poet  was  anything 
like  a  linguistic  investigator  in  the  modern  sense,  he  had 
a  wide  acquaintance  with  Germanic  and  Romance  litera 
tures;  he  spoke  several  modern  tongues  with  fluency;  and 
he  had  a  sufficient  command  of  idiom  to  translate  with 
seeming  ease  from  Swedish,  German,  Old  English,  French, 
Spanish,  and  Italian.  His  renderings  from  TegneYs 
"Frithiofs  Saga"  seemed  so  true  to  the  original  that  the 
Swedish  poet  urged  Longfellow  to  complete  the  transla 
tion.  The  versions  of  Uhland  and  others  which  he  made 
in  Germany  during  the  year  1836  were  later  on  extraor 
dinarily  efficacious  in  popularising  German  literature  for 
America.  He  may  likewise  be  counted  one  of  the  pio 
neers  among  American  students  of  Old  English  or,  as 
he  called  it,  "Anglo-Saxon."  As  a  teacher  of  modern 
languages,  he  naturally  gave  heed  to  Greek  and  Latin 
secondarily,  and  there  came  a  time  when  he  deplored  the 
fact  that  his  familiarity  with  Greek  had  slipped  away. 
Yet  he  loved  the  classics,  his  favourite  among  the  Latin 


280  The  Nineteenth  Century 

poets  being  Horace.  In  Horace,  he  said,  one  could  find 
all  that  was  worth  while  in  the  message  of  Goethe,  ex 
pressed  just  as  well,  and  uttered  earlier.  Of  course  the 
most  considerable  piece  of  scholarship  undertaken  by 
Longfellow  was  his  translation  of  the  "Divine  Comedy," 
a  task  for  which  his  enthusiastic  teaching  of  Dante  had 
helped  to  fit  him,  and  one  which  he  had  commenced 
(1839)  years  before  the  death  of  his  second  wife;  yet  one 
which  he  resumed  and  mainly  completed  relatively  late  in 
life,  and,  like  Bryant's  Homer,  something  taken  up  as  the 
resource  of  a  soul  bitterly  bereaved,  unable  to  accomplish 
spontaneous  creative  work.  In  compassing  this  task, 
Longfellow  had  the  encouragement  and  the  direct  as 
sistance  of  Norton  and  Lowell,  to  whose  knowledge  and 
taste  the  translation  as  it  now  stands  is  greatly  indebted. 
Even  so,  it  cannot  rank  high  in  artistic  workmanship. 
First  of  all,  the  translator  found  that,  in  order  to  repro 
duce  the  sense  with  fidelity,  he  must  sacrifice  the  rhyme, 
a  dubious  concession  so  long  as  metrical  structure  was  to 
be  retained  at  all.  Still,  Longfellow's  translation  is  pure 
and  lucid  English;  for  the  beginner  in  Dante  the  critical 
apparatus  is  valuable  even  now;  and  the  three  sonnets 
prefixed  to  the  "Inferno,"  "Purgatorio,"  and  "Paradiso" 
are  in  themselves  an  introduction  to  Dante  of  a  sort  hardly 
to  be  surpassed.  The  best  spirit  of  America  is  blended  in 
them  with  the  best  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  considering  Longfellow  as  an  original  poet,  we  shall 
not  go  astray  if  we  remember  his  own  conception  of  origi 
nality.  To  him  the  poetic  gift  meant,  not  the  power  of 
creating  new  material — as  the  vulgar  suppose — but  in 
sight,  the  power  of  seeing  things  according  to  their  eternal 
values.  Doubtless  he  realised  that  one  needs  insight  to 
discover  how  far  the  vulgar  supposition  is  blind.  At  all 
events,  we  need  not  look  for  new  ideas  or  new  sentiments 
in  the  poetry  of  Longfellow,  but  for  an  attempt  to  make 
us  see  things  as  he  sees  them,  after  he  has  tried  to  see 


The  Poets  281 

them  as  they  are.  In  his  dramas,  and  in  his  narratives — 
these  latter  being  more  important — he  frankly  took  material 
furnished  by  his  wide  reading,  or  lying  ready  to  his  hand, 
and  strove  to  clothe  it  in  a  new  and  more  permanent 
form.  "  Evangeline "  is  an  instance  of  his  method.  The 
story  was  given  him  by  Hawthorne;  in  elaborating  it, 
Longfellow  consulted  such  works  on  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
exile  of  the  Acadians  as  were  accessible  to  him;  he  was 
true  to  his  sources.  Had  he  known  of  better  authorities, 
he  would  have  read  them,  and  his  account  of  the  exile 
would  have  been  historically  more  precise.  The  metre  of 
"Evangeline,"  suggested  by  that  of  Goethe's  "Hermann 
und  Dorothea,"  is  one  of  the  rare  instances  where  dactylic 
hexameter  has  succeeded  in  English.  One  can  truthfully 
say  that  whatever  Longfellow  took  he  really  appropriated, 
that  is,  made  his  own.  It  was  but  seldom  that  his  ma 
terials  would  not  fuse,  for  he  had  a  thorough  command 
of  technique.  In  "  Hiawatha,"  which  has  been  called  "  the 
nearest  approach  to  an  American  epic,"  he  employed  a 
form  of  verse  borrowed  from  the  Finnish  "Kalevala,"  in 
which  to  embody  traditions  of  the  Indians.  As  Freiligrath 
remarked,  there  is  something  odd  in  the  notion  of  Hia 
watha,  child  of  the  West  Wind,  meeting  with  historical 
Christian  missionaries.  However,  Longfellow's  daring 
synthesis  of  heterogeneous  elements  pleased  that  great 
authority  on  American  antiquities  Henry  R.  Schoolcraft ; 
after  many  failures,  a  native  poet  had  at  length  arisen  to 
portray  our  aborigines,  in  a  long  poem,  with  fidelity  and 
imagination.  Ten  thousand  copies  were  sold  in  this 
country  within  four  weeks,  and  the  poem  was  translated 
into  six  modern  languages. 

The  dramatic  works  of  Longfellow  have  suffered  in 
comparison  with  his  narrative  poems  and  lyrics.  The 
causes  of  this  are  partly  internal  and  partly  external.  In 
his  "  Christus,"  which  he  fancied  would  endure,  he  probably 
chose  a  subject  of  too  great  magnitude  for  his  powers. 


282  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Yet  the  second  part  at  least,  "The  Golden  Legend,"  at 
present  operates  less  vitally  than  it  should,  largely  because 
of  its  sympathy  with  the  ideals  of  the  Middle  Ages — with 
ideals  which  we,  still  living  in  the  Renaissance,  are  not 
ready  to  comprehend.  "'The  Golden  Legend,'"  said 
G.  P.  R.  James,  "is  like  an  old  ruin  with  the  ivy  and  the 
rich  blue  mould  upon  it."  Is  it  not  more  like  a  Gothic 
church  before  mould  and  ruin  have  crept  in?  It  is  a  bit 
of  wholesome,  rejuvenated  medievalism,  an  edifice  whose 
threshold  the  intellectual  pride  of  our  age  feels  discomfort 
in  crossing. 

It  is  by  his  shorter  poems  that  Longfellow  now  chiefly 
lives.  Brief  narratives  such  as  "  The  Skeleton  in  Armour," 
and  "The  Wreck  of  the  Schooner  Hesperus,"  lyrics  of 
sentiment  and  pathos — "Psalms  of  Life" — more  rarely 
bits  of  humour  like  the  German  mechanic's  song,  "  I  know 
a  maiden,  fair  to  see,"  were  soon  established  in  the  popular 
memory.  It  would  be  ungracious  to  say  that  the  popular 
taste  has  been  wrong  in  preferring  what  is  sentimental 
and  pathetic  in  Longfellow.  A  poet  whose  love  of  the 
hearth  was  so  strong,  and  whose  personal  acquaintance 
with  domestic  happiness  and  domestic  grief  was  so  pro 
found,  did  well  to  pour  out  his  soul  in  verses  which  add 
sunshine  to  daylight  for  the  happy,  and  in  which  the 
deeply  afflicted  may  find  pensive  solace.  Yet  the  popular 
taste  has  clung  to  "Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers," 
where  the  sentiment  is  not  above  suspicion,  and  to  "The 
Skeleton  in  Armour,"  where  character,  sentiment,  and  his 
torical  setting  are  for  the  most  part  incongruous;  and  it 
has  almost  let  the  sonnet  on  Milton  fall  asleep. 

Longfellow  was  the  most  popular  poet  ever  brought 
forth  on  this  continent.  His  unparalleled  vogue  was 
destined  to  undergo  a  reaction.  Among  those  who  want 
better  bread  than  is  made  of  wheat,  his  poetry  is  not  now 
counted  a  stimulating  diet.  However,  when  American 
scholarship  shall  succeed  in  reducing  American  literature 


The  Poets  283 

to  a  true  perspective,  he  will  come  to  his  own  again. 
His  patriotism  will  be  rediscovered;  his  technical  skill 
will  be  carefully  appraised;  the  honours  heaped  upon  him 
throughout  the  civilised  world  will  be  recognised  as  just; 
and  the  character  from  which  flowed  a  well  of  undefiled 
poetry  will  stand  out  as  one  of  the  noblest  products  of 
occidental  civilisation. 

James  Russell  Lowell. — By  general  consent,  Longfellow 
is  our  American  poet,  par  excellence,  Emerson  our 
philosopher,  James  Russell  Lowell  our  man  of  letters. 
Others,  Lowell  among  them,  have  shared  more  richly  than 
Longfellow  in  a  distinctively  lyrical  temperament;  others 
have  thought  more  consecutively  than  Emerson.  No  one, 
however,  when  his  initial  talents  are  considered,  has  pro 
duced  so  much  good  poetry  as  Longfellow;  no  one  in  the 
realm  of  philosophic  thought  has  been  so  patently  in 
fluential  as  Emerson;  and  no  one,  not  even  Irving,  has 
fared  well  in  so  many  avenues  of  literature  and  popular 
scholarship  as  Lowell.  He  was  poet,  critic,  professor, 
editor,  diplomat,  patriot,  humanist;  and  withal  he  was  a 
man  and  a  friend. 

He  was  born  on  Washington's  birthday,  February  22, 
1819,  at  "Elmwood,"  Cambridge,  a  house  still  in  the 
possession  of  his  family.  On  his  father's  side  he  was  of 
English  blood,  being  descended  from  Percival  Lowell,  who 
came  from  Somersetshire  to  Massachusetts  Colony  in  1639; 
through  his  mother  he  drew  his  lineage  from  the  folk  of 
the  Orkney  Islands.  His  father  was  a  well  educated 
clergyman,  faithful  and  affectionate;  his  mother,  whether 
really  gifted  with  second  sight  or  not,  was  of  a  less  usual 
type,  imaginative,  high-strung,  with  a  tendency  to  mental 
derangement.  During  his  infancy  her  youngest  son  heard 
ballads  for  lullabies.  As  a  child  he  was  read  to  sleep 
with  Spenser's  "Faerie  Queene."  When  he  grew  older, 
he  had  the  range  of  his  father's  generously  stocked  library. 


284  The  Nineteenth  Century 

At  the  age  of  nine,  he  was  devouring  Walter  Scott,  and, 
like  Scott  at  the  same  age,  was  astonishing  his  companions 
with  improvised  tales  of  fear  and  wonder.  His  imagina 
tion  was  not  unduly  stimulated;  he  lived  a  wholesome 
outdoor  life,  and  he  had  a  sound  schooling  in  the  classics. 
When  he  went  to  Harvard,  in  1834,  "he  was  a  shy  yet 
not  very  tractable  youth,  given,  like  so  many  boys  who  are 
shy  from  excess  rather  than  from  defect  of  ability,  to  oc 
casional  violence  and  oddity  of  expression  or  act."  At 
Harvard,  he  gradually  rebelled  against  the  rigour  of  a  fixed 
curriculum,  but  read  omnivorously  in  English  literature  of 
the  sixteenth  and  the  nineteenth  century,  and,  following  the 
English  romanticists  of  a  generation  previous,  paid  particu 
lar  attention  to  Spenser  and  Milton.  "  Milton,"  he  observes, 
"  has  excited  my  ambition  to  read  all  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  which  he  did."  Lowell  had  gone  through  a  pre 
cocious  love  affair  at  the  age  of  ten;  while  in  college  he 
was  again  "hopelessly  in  love."  His  efforts  in  the  way 
of  serious  writing  were  at  this  time  facile  and,  naturally, 
not  profound;  his  humour  was  naive,  and  more  engaging. 
His  gradual  neglect  of  the  prescribed  routine,  in  spite  of 
his  father's  attempts  to  stir  up  in  the  young  man  a  re 
spect  for  academic  honours,  at  length  brought  upon  Lowell 
the  open  displeasure  of  the  Harvard  faculty;  so  that  in 
his  senior  year  he  was  temporarily  suspended,  and  directed 
to  regain  his  standing  under  the  private  instruction  of 
the  Rev.  Barzillai  Frost  at  Concord.  Longfellow  was  one 
of  his  teachers  in  Cambridge;  in  his  retirement,  he  met 
Emerson  and  Thoreau.  When  he  left  his  tutor  and  re 
turned  to  Harvard,  Class  Day  was  past;  but  he  brought 
back  his  Class  Poem  finished,  and  allowed  it  to  circulate 
among  his  friends.  It  is  interesting  as  an  evidence  of 
Lowell's  early  freedom  in  using  a  variety  of  metres,  of  his 
feeling  for  nature,  of  his  New  England  heritage  of  con 
servatism,  of  his  inability  as  yet  to  enter  into  sympathy 
with  the  movement  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  or  with 


The  Poets  285 

Emerson  and  Transcendentalism.  It  is  interesting  as  a 
mixture  of  the  old  and  the  new;  its  touches  of  enthusiasm 
are  in  odd  contrast  with  its  general  manner,  which  is 
strongly  reminiscent  of  post-Revolutionary  satire. 

His  course  at  Harvard  over — for  better  or  worse, — 
Lowell  consigned  himself,  with  misgivings  and  vacillation, 
to  the  study  of  law.  An  unfortunate  love  affair,  the  finan 
cial  reverses  of  his  father,  uncertainty  about  his  own 
livelihood,  and  his  seemingly  thwarted  longing  to  become 
an  author  conspired  to  render  him  at  times  almost  des 
perate.  It  appears  that  he  even  meditated  suicide.  His 
humour  saved  him.  He  continued  his  study  of  ancient  and 
modern  poets  and  certain  aspects  of  their  art;  through 
this  study,  as  well  as  through  his  mental  sufferings,  his 
knowledge  of  humanity  was  broadened  and  enriched.  He 
began  to  understand  the  position  of  the  Abolitionists. 
With  his  engagement  to  Miss  Maria  White,  the  horizon 
finally  cleared.  He  had  taken  his  degree  in  law.  Though 
he  could  not  immediately  be  married,  the  constant  in 
fluence  of  Miss  White,  herself  a  poetess,  and  his  contact 
with  the  circle  of  young  people  in  which  she  moved — "  the 
Band" — were  from  now  on  vital  elements  in  his  spiritual 
development.  His  head  was  full  of  literary  plans.  He 
would  write  a  life  of  Keats;  he  would  compose  a  "psycho- 
historical"  tragedy.  He  became  a  contributor  of  verse  to 
Graham's  Magazine.  In  1840  he  brought  out  the  volume 
of  poetry  entitled  "A  Year's  Life,"  labelled  by  reviewers 
as  "humanitarian  and  idealistic";  and  in  the  next  year  or 
so  he  wrote  for  other  periodicals  an  assortment  of  sonnets, 
prose  sketches,  and  literary  essays  on  the  Elizabethan 
dramatists.  By  the  close  of  1842,  he  had  resolved  to 
abandon  the  law,  and  associated  himself  with  Robert 
Carter  in  founding  a  magazine  to  be  known  as  The  Pio 
neer.  The  venture  was  short-lived,  owing  to  Lowell's  en 
forced  removal  to  New  York,  where  he  was  under  the 
care  of  an  eye-specialist.  The  failure  of  his  periodical 


286  The  Nineteenth  Century 

involved  him  in  debt;  however,  he  had  gained  valuable 
experience  as  an  editor,  and  had  widened  his  acquaint 
ance  among  men  of  letters.  Settling  once  more  at  Cam 
bridge,  he  watched  over  the  persons  of  his  mother,  whose 
mind  was  now  astray,  and  his  eldest  sister,  who  already 
began  to  show  signs  of  a  similar  malady.  The  fruit  of 
two  years' of  poetical  activity  appeared  at  the  end  of  1843 
in  his  first  series  of  "Poems."  He  married  Miss  White 
on  December  26,  1844.  Immediately  afterward,  he  as 
sumed  for  a  brief  space  a  position  in  Philadelphia  on 
The  Pennsylvania  Freeman,  he  and  his  wife  eking  out  a 
slender  income  by  writing  for  The  Broadway  Journal  of 
New  York.  An  ardent  Abolitionist  now,  Lowell,  on  his 
return  to  Cambridge,  gave  his  attention  during  the  next 
four  years  mainly  to  articles  for  The  National  Anti-Slavery 
Standard.  From  this  point  it  is  impossible  in  so  short  an 
account  as  the  present  to  record  many  details  of  his  pro 
ductivity  as  a  writer.  In  1846  appeared  the  first  of  the 
"Biglow  Papers,"  published  in  The  Boston  Courier;  three 
more  came  out  the  next  year.  In  1848,  besides  a  large 
sheaf  of  articles,  Lowell  issued  the  second  series  of  his 
"Poems,"  his  "Fable  for  Critics"— in  which  he  handled 
contemporary  American  poets  with  levity  but  also  with  in 
sight — and  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,"  significant  titles 
in  any  list  of  his  works.  His  powers  were  near  their  height. 
His  humour  was  almost  as  sure  as  it  ever  became;  his 
criticism  almost  as  pregnant,  his  imagination  as  vital,  his 
attitude  toward  national  issues  as  uncompromising.  The 
defects  in  his  style  and  treatment  are  such  as  we  find 
even  in  his  later  work.  Until  1853  Lowell's  life  was  in 
the  main  happy,  darkened  indeed  by  the  death  of  several 
children,  and  by  anxiety  over  the  fading  health  of  his 
wife.  From  the  grief  and  loneliness  following  her  death, 
he  sought  relief  in  the  preparation  of  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  English  poets,  to  be  delivered  before  the  Lowell 
Institute  in  Boston.  Their  signal  success  brought  him  a 


The  Poets  287 

call  to  the  chair  left  vacant  at  Harvard  by  Longfellow. 
He  gave  a  year  or  more  to  study  abroad;  returning  in 
1856,  he  spent  the  next  sixteen  years  of  his  life  in  the 
duties  of  a  college  professor.  He  lectured  on  poetry  and 
fine  art,  and  offered  courses  in  German,  Spanish,  and 
Italian  literature.  He  was  at  his  best  in  teaching  Dante, 
where  he  could  put  in  motion  his  belief  ' '  that  the  study 
of  imaginative  literature  tends  to  sanity  of  mind";  that  it 
is  "a  study  of  order,  proportion,  arrangement,  of  the 
highest  and  purest  Reason,"  and  shows  "that  chance  has 
less  to  do  with  success  than  forethought,  will,  and  work." 
Latterly  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  literature  of  Old 
French.  For  a  man  who  has  been  taxed  with  hereditary 
indolence,  his  industry  was  surprising.  His  connection 
with  The  Atlantic  Monthly  from  its  launching,  in  1857, 
until  1 86 1,  and  with  The  North  American  Review  from 
1864  until  1872,  is  mentioned  elsewhere.  His  private 
reading  was  continuous  and  discursive.  With  the  ap 
proach  and  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  his  heart  and 
pen  were  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  North.  He  wrote 
perhaps  the  most  stirring  political  articles  in  American 
literature;  and  his  verse  ran  all  the  way  from  a  new  series 
of  "Biglow  Papers"  to  the  "Commemoration  Ode"  recited 
at  the  memorial  exercises,  July  21,  1865,  in  honour  of  the 
Harvard  graduates  who  had  given  their  lives  for  their 
country.  After  the  war,  The  North  American  Review 
provided  him  with  an  outlet  for  many  of  his  best  known 
articles  in  literary  criticism,  for  example,  his  essays  on 
Chaucer,  Pope,  Spenser,  and  Dante.  "The  Cathedral," 
his  most  notable  poem  after  the  "Commemoration  Ode," 
appeared  in  1870.  In  1869,  and  again  in  1870,  he  de 
livered  a  number  of  lectures,  on  the  poets,  at  Cornell  Uni 
versity.  In  1872,  unable  to  secure  a  leave  of  absence 
from  Harvard,  he  resigned  his  position  there,  in  order  to 
go  abroad.  After  a  stay  of  two  years  in  Europe,  where 
he  was  the  recipient  of  distinguished  honours,  he  resumed 


288  The  Nineteenth  Century 

his  post  at  Harvard,  retaining  it  until  1877,  when  Presi 
dent  Hayes  appointed  him  Minister  to  Spain  (1877-80). 
In  1880  Garfield  made  him  Minister  to  England;  here 
honours  were  showered  upon  him.  ' '  The  Queen  is  recorded 
to  have  said  that  during  her  long  reign  no  ambassador  or 
minister  had  created  so  much  interest  and  won  so  much 
regard  as  Mr.  Lowell."  Shortly  after  the  death  of  his 
second  wife,  in  1885,  he  was  supplanted  in  his  diplomatic 
post.  For  a  time  he  lived  with  his  daughter  at  South- 
borough,  Massachusetts.  Among  the  later  collections  of 
his  poetry  was  "Heartsease  and  Rue,"  published  in  1887. 
The  last  two  years  of  his  life  were  passed  at  Cambridge, 
devoted  in  part  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  in  ten  volumes. 
After  a  season  of  weakness  and  pain,  borne  with  forti 
tude  and  humour,  he  died,  where  he  first  saw  the  light,  at 
Elmwood,  on  August  12,  1891. 

It  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  characterise  Lowell  briefly. 
An  attempt  to  sum  up  a  personality  that  chose  so  many 
avenues  of  expression,  and  that  at  bottom  was  not  thor 
oughly  unified,  can  hardly  do  justice  to  the  component 
parts.  The  most  striking  thing  about  the  man  was  his 
fertility,  if  not  in  great  constructive  ideas,  at  all  events  in 
separate  thoughts.  What  he  writes  is  full  of  meat.  His 
redundancy  is  not  in  the  way  of  useless  verbiage;  he 
wants  to  use  all  the  materials  that  offer.  A  less  obvious 
thing  in  Lowell  is  what  we  may  term  his  lack  of  complete 
spiritual  organisation.  He  lived  in  an  age  of  dissolving 
beliefs  and  intellectual  unrest.  Though  he  was  not  tor 
mented,  as  were  some  others,  by  fierce  internal  doubts, 
he  yet  failed  ever  to  be  quite  clear  with  himself  on  funda 
mental  questions  of  philosophy  and  religion.  He  was  never 
quite  at  one  with  himself.  As  a  writer,  his  serious  and 
his  humorous  moods  were  continually  interrupting  each 
other.  Partly  on  this  account,  he  did  not  possess  an 
assured  style.  Partly,  of  course,  a  kind  of  indifference, 
inherited  or  developed,  was  to  blame;  in  his  formative 


The  Poets  289 

stage,  he  did  not  have  the  patience — as  he  himself  told 
Longfellow — to  write  slowly  enough.  The  result  is,  our 
enjoyment  of  his  poetry  comes  from  separate  passages, 
not  from  organically  constituted,  harmonious  wholes.  In 
the  occasional  felicitous  expression  of  an  individual  thought, 
few  can  surpass  him : 

Coy  Hebe  flies  from  those  that  woo, 

And  shuns  the  hands  would  seize  upon  her; 

Follow  thy  life,  and  she  will  sue 

To  pour  for  thee  the  cup  of  honour. 

As  a  colourist  in  words,  when  he  happens  not  to  overdo 
the  impression,  his  art  often  seems  masterly.  Yet  if  we 
look  closely,  even  in  the  much  lauded  "Commemoration 
Ode,"  his  technique  is  seldom  if  ever  inevitable.  His 
prose  is  stylistically  more  continuous  than  his  verse,  owing 
to  his  experience  as  an  editor.  He  healed  others;  him 
self  he  could  heal  at  least  partially.  But  even  as  a  prose 
writer,  in  spite  of  his  studies  in  the  history  of  literature, 
he  did  not  reach  the  point  where  science  and  the  under 
standing  are  seen  to  be  in  harmony  with  poetry  and  the 
imagination.  It  appears  that  he  did  not  succeed  in  dis 
tinguishing  between  what  was  temporary  and  what  was 
permanent  in  science,  so  that  he  did  not  escape  the  danger 
of  confusing  the  errors  of  scientists  with  their  ideals;  and 
as  he  was  not  in  full  sympathy,  as  Dante  was,  with  minute 
literary  research,  so  he  was  not  willing  to  subject  himself 
to  the  last,  exacting,  and  detailed  labours  of  the  poet  or 
essayist  who  determines  to  write  verse  or  prose  that  shall 
endure.  It  follows  that  most  of  his  writing,  both  poetry 
and  prose,  lacks  finality.  Thus  in  his  article  on  Chaucer, 
though  he  met  the  approval  of  no  less  an  authority  than 
Professor  Child,  he  could  not  ultimately  have  satisfied  that 
great  scholar  and  critic,  since  Lowell  did  not  confine  him 
self  to  generalisations  based  upon  exhaustive  induction. 
He  does  not  clearly  discriminate  between  "I  think"  and 
"I  know." 
19 


290  The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  fact  is  that  he  wrote  mainly  for  his  own  time, 
and  was  bound  to  have  but  a  temporary  reward.  This  is 
not  saying  that  the  reward  was  not  worth  while.  His  in 
terpretations  of  Spenser,  of  Dante,  of  Milton,  of  the  elder 
dramatists,  sent  to  those  poets  many  a  reader  who  would 
not  otherwise  have  gone ;  for  America,  he  opened  the  road 
in  the  study  of  Chaucer;  and  his  own  "Vision  of  Sir  Laun- 
fal"  has  unlocked  many  a  hard  heart  to  divine  influences. 
When  he  wrote  in  dialect,  as  in  the  "Biglow  Papers,"  he 
was  manifestly  writing  for  a  time;  but  in  their  time  the 
second  series  did  more  to  justify  the  Northern  cause  than 
almost  any  other  publication  that  could  be  mentioned, 
Whittier's  poems  not  excepted.  It  may  be  thought  that 
his  wonderful  command  of  dialect,  contrasted  with  a  less 
perfect  and  less  instinctive  success  in  any  higher  medium, 
marks  him  as  above  all  else  a  satiric  poet.  When  he  was 
once  sitting  for  his  portrait,  he  so  denominated  himself, 
speaking  generally — "a  bored  satiric  poet."  Yet  were  we 
to  name  Lowell  the  greatest  of  all  American  satirists,  his 
urgent  poems  of  patriotism — "The  Washers  of  the  Shroud," 
the  "Commemoration  Ode" — his  "Vision  of  Sir  Launfal," 
and  "The  Cathedral"  would  immediately  proclaim  him 
something  greater  than  any  satiric  poet  could  be.  Last  of 
all,  nobler  than  the  sum  of  his  writings  was  the  work  which 
he  effected  in  bringing  together  his  native  land  and  the 
mother  country,  England,  in  a  bond  of  sympathy  unknown 
since  their  separation. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. — Emerson  usually  passes  for 
a  philosophical  mystic  and  lay  preacher.  He  deemed 
himself  more  of  a  poet  than  anything  else,  for  he  always 
hoped  to  attain  perfect  utterance  in  rhythmical  language. 
Yet  the  fact  that  he  wrote  much  more  prose,  however 
imaginative,  than  verse,  has  relegated  the  main  treatment  of 
him  to  another  section  of  this  volume.  Such  an  arrangement, 
of  course,  is  grounded  in  uncritical  custom,  not  in  reason. 


The  Poets  291 

Arbitrarily  limiting  ourselves  here  to  his  compositions 
in  metre,  we  find  that  throughout  his  Hfe  (1803-82),  or 
throughout  the  years  in  which  he  was  productive,  Emerson 
was  responsible  for  much  more  poetry,  in  the  narrower 
sense,  than  most  of  his  readers  are  aware  of,  and  that 
his  poems  are  as  well  worth  attention  as  his  essays.  In  his 
verse,  which  was  written  for  himself,  he  is,  to  be  sure,  less 
at  home  so  far  as  concerns  the  form,  but  being  less  hampered 
by  any  regard  for  an  audience,  he  is  more  spontaneous  in 
his  thought.  At  the  same  time,  his  stock  of  fundamental 
ideas  and  sentiments,  however  vivid  and  pure,  was  pretty 
much  exhausted  in  his  prose,  so  that,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  he  repeated  himself  when  he  changed  his  medium  of 
expression.  Moreover,  as  the  hierophant  of  intellectual 
independence,  he  did  not  come  to  a  practical  realisation  of 
the  way  in  which  the  opulence  of  the  greatest  poets  and 
thinkers  is  related  to  the  wealth  and  continuity  of  their 
reading.  Emerson,  indeed,  read  multifariously  if  not 
thoroughly;  and  it  is  true  that  his  essays  are  liberal  in  the 
use  of  borrowed  matter;  the  production  of  an  essay  on 
Montaigne  might  appear  to  mean  little  more  than  throwing 
together  an  anthology  of  excerpts,  cemented  with  Emer 
son's  own  marginal  notes.  He  rarely  mastered  any  single 
author  entire.  His  insight  went  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and 
he  appropriated  what  he  found  congenial,  not  being  pliant 
enough  to  enter  steadily  and  long  into  the  thought  of  an 
other.  His  prose  in  general  lacks  plan.  Some  of  his 
poems,  on  the  contrary,  are  more  unified,  having  an 
organic  wholeness  which  is  absent  from  his  longer  essays. 
In  an  essay,  mere  continuity  of  sentiment  and  preserva 
tion  of  individual  style  do  not  constitute  an  adequate  link 
between  the  parts.  In  a  lyric  poem,  such  consistency  may 
suffice.  Virtually,  all  of  Emerson's  poetry  is  lyrical  and 
meditative.  The  technique  is  seldom  smooth,  not  for  want 
of  pains,  since  it  was  laboured  and  continually  retouched, 
but  for  want  of  capacity  in  the  artist.  The  style  is  apt 


292  The  Nineteenth  Century 

to  be  brittle,  the  cadence  is  not  maintained  through  pas 
sages  of  any  length,  and  the  separate  sentences  are  easily 
detached  from  their  context.  Even  so,  they  are  not  al 
ways  clear,  but  may  need  commentary  and  parallel  from 
the  "  Essays  "  to  explain  them.  Emerson's  poetry  is  largely 
autobiographical  and,  in  no  harsh  sense,  egoistic,  a  picture 
of  the  successive  and  recurrent  states  of  his  own  soul. 
His  vision  of  the  universe  in  each  of  its  parts,  his  belief 
in  the  immanence  of  God  and  the  educational  potency  of 
solitude,  and  his  confidence  in  the  ability  of  Nature  to 
prepare  and  suddenly  to  produce  ideal  or  "representative" 
men,  are  ever  near  the  surface.  In  his  descriptions  of  the 
external  world  he  is  faithful  to  detail;  but  as  he  discovers 
in  each  individual  thing  an  intrinsic  value  transcending 
the  value  of  its  dependence  on  the  whole,  he  is  likely  to 
see  the  parts  without  being  ready  to  seize  the  perspective. 
Among  details  his  selection,  if  he  makes  any,  seems  alto 
gether  an  affair  of  his  mood,  not  of  logic.  His  power  of 
choice  is  nevertheless  stronger  than  Whitman's.  He  has 
a  more  than  Wordsworthian  distaste  for  analytic  science : 

But  these  young  scholars,  who  invade  our  hills, 

Bold  as  the  engineer  who  fells  the  wood, 

And  travelling  often  in  the  cut  he  makes, 

Love  not  the  flower  they  pluck,  and  know  it  not, 

And  all  their  botany  is  Latin  names. 

None  the  less  have  science  and  scientific  terms  invaded 
his  poetry;  nor  is  it  simply  the  larger  and  the  elemental 
aspects  of  modern  discovery  that  claim  his  regard.  With 
his  individualistic  turn  of  mind,  he  can  not  choose  but 
have  an  eye  for  the  precise  and  specific : 

Ah!  well  I  mind  the  calendar, 
Faithful  through  a  thousand  years, 
Of  the  painted  race  of  flowers, 
Exact  to  days,  exact  to  hours. 


The  Poets  293 

I  know  the  trusty  almanac 
Of  the  punctual  coming-back, 
On  their  due  days,  of  the  birds. 

He  understands  his  own  interest  in  such  matters;  not 
being  very  objective,  he  cannot  understand  the  impulse  of 
the  young  botanist.  Lacking  the  dramatic  and  historical 
impulse,  he  wrote  no  long  poems.  "May-Day"  is  his 
longest  and  most  sustained,  although  he  never  quite  suc 
ceeded  in  ordering  its  parts.  It  ''was  probably  written  in 
snatches  in  the  woods  on  his  afternoon  walks,  through  many 
years."  The  volume  to  which  it  gave  its  name  (1867) 
marked  a  distinct  advance  in  fluency  over  the  collection 
of  his  poems  that  had  appeared  twenty  years  earlier.  But 
even  considering  his  own  final  selection  (1876)  or  considering 
the  now  standard  text  of  all  his  poetry  (published  in  1904), 
we  can  scarcely  affirm  that  the  longing  he  expressed  in 
1839  was  ever  fully  satisfied:  "I  am  naturally  keenly 
susceptible  to  the  pleasures  of  rhythm,  and  cannot  believe 
but  one  day  I  shall  attain  to  that  splendid  dialect,  so 
ardent  is  my  wish;  and  these  wishes,  I  suppose,  are  ever 
only  the  buds  of  power;  but  up  to  this  hour  I  have  never 
had  a  true  success  in  such  attempts."  It  is  probable  that 
in  spite  of  his  New  England  good  sense,  his  inherent 
esteem  for  propriety,  his  insight  into  the  subtler  workings 
of  nature,  he  did  not  have  the  initial  impulse  of  a  Bryant 
and  a  Longfellow  toward  what  he  most  needed  in  his 
education.  Nature  works  also  through  the  scientist  and 
the  pedagogue.  Emerson  doubts  it: 

Can  rules  or  tutors  educate 
The  semigod  whom  we  await  ? 
He  must  be  musical, 
Tremulous,  impressional, 
Alive  to  gentle  influence 
Of  landscape  and  of  sky, 
And  tender  to  the  spirit-touch 
Of  man's  or  maiden's  eye; 


294  The  Nineteenth  Century 

But,  to  his  native  centre  fast, 
Shall  into  Future  fuse  the  Past, 
And  the  world's  flowing  fates  in  his  own  mould  recast. 

Henry  David  Thoreau. — Emerson  had  the  originality 
that  enables  a  seer  to  pierce  beneath  the  surface,  and  to 
find  a  likeness  in  things  where  passive  minds  detect  no 
brotherhood;  he  did  not  have  the  originality  by  virtue  of 
which  amply  creative  minds  gather  a  multitude  of  ele 
ments,  properly  subordinated  one  to  another,  into  new, 
harmonious,  and  embracing  wholes.  His  is  a  crucial  defect 
in  American  poetry,  a  defect  in  the  constructive  imagina 
tion.  This  defect  is  intimately  associated  with  an  un- 
scholarly  dread  of  minute  research.  Emerson's  attitude 
of  distrust  toward  science  was  shared  by  his  friend  and 
disciple  Thoreau  (1817-62),  in  whom  the  creed  of  individ 
ualism  ran  almost  to  the  point  of  caricature.  In  his  youth 
and  prime,  Thoreau  wrote  a  great  deal  of  verse,  only  a 
little  of  which  has  been  preserved.  The  conception  of 
Prometheus,  suffering  and  isolated  friend  of  humanity, 
tenacious  in  the  assertion  of  his  own  will,  was  to  Thoreau's 
taste;  hence  his  rough  but  stirring  translation  from  the 
tragedy  by  ^Eschylus.  He  had  the  Emersonian  fondness 
for  gnomic  sentences  and  verses,  such  as  he  found  scat 
tered  through  the  "Odes"  of  Pindar.  His  versions  of 
Pindaric  gnomes  show  that  he  was  not  afraid  of  difficult 
Greek;  still,  he  hovered  between  belief  and  disbelief  in 
scholarship.  His  ear  was  better  than  Emerson's.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  his  unrivalled  gift  of  observation  did  not 
more  frequently  leave  a  record  of  itself  in  lines  like  those 
"To  a  Stray  Fowl."  His  mind  was  not  without  the  New 
England  love  of  the  startling  and  paradoxical.  Yet  his 
search  for  hidden  analogies  borders  oftener  on  true  imag 
ination  than  was  the  case  with  Holmes. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.— "  The  Autocrat  of  the  Break 
fast-Table"  has  already  given  evidence  that  it  will  outlast 


The  Poets  295 

"Elsie  Venner"  and  "The  Guardian  Angel";  yet  if  the 
miscellanies  of  Dr.  Holmes  (1809-94)  possess  more  vitality 
than  his  novels,  this  is  in  some  measure  due  to  the  "  Auto 
crat's  "  occasional  employment  of  verse.  In  the  "  Breakfast- 
Table"  series  appeared  "The  Chambered  Nautilus"  and 
"  The  Wonderful '  One-Hoss  Shay, '  "  which,  with  his  youth 
ful  "Old  Ironsides,"  and  "The  Broomstick  Train,"  have 
retained  the  firmest  hold  on  the  popular  memory.  Holmes 
was  pleased  to  trace  his  ancestry  back  to  Anne  Bradstreet, 
the  first  American  poetess.  His  own  poetry  commenced 
with  a  schoolboy  rendering  into  heroic  couplets  from  Virgil, 
and  hardly  ended  with  his  tribute  to  the  memory  of 
Whittier  in  1892.  In  the  standard  edition  of  his  works 
his  poems  occupy  three  volumes.  Many  of  them,  corre 
sponding  to  his  turn  for  the  novel,  are  narrative;  for  story 
telling  he  had  a  knack  amounting  to  a  high  degree  of 
talent.  His  sense  of  order  and  proportion  is  stronger  than 
that  of  other  members  of  the  New  England  school,  and 
he  has  a  command  of  at  least  formal  structure.  One  may 
not  unreasonably  attribute  this  command  in  part  to  his 
studies  in  human  anatomy.  At  the  same  time  Holmes  is 
beset  with  the  temptation  to  value  manner  and  brilliancy 
rather  than  substance,  and  he  will  go  out  of  his  way  for 
a  fanciful  conceit  or  a  striking  expression.  In  the  use  of 
odds  and  ends  of  recondite  lore  his  cleverness  is  amazing. 
He  had  a  tenacious  memory  and  a  habit  of  rapid  associa 
tion,  so  that  as  a  punster  he  is  almost  without  a  match. 
However,  his  glance  is  not  deeply  penetrating;  he  sees 
fantastic  resemblances  between  things  that  are  really  far 
removed  from  one  another,  not  so  often  the  fundamental 
similarities  in  things  whether  near  or  apart.  One  may 
in  vain  search  through  Holmes  for  anything  so  truly  poetic 
as  Thoreau's  comparison  of  sex  in  human  beings  and  flowers. 
Accordingly,  his  mind  may  be  classed  as  fanciful  rather  than 
imaginative.  It  ought  not  to  be  misunderstood,  and  will 
not  be  unduly  detracting  from  his  great  excellence,  if  we 


296  The  Nineteenth  Century 

say  that  the  poetry  of  Holmes  does  not  always  evince  the 
highest  moral  seriousness — a  lack  that  is  not  fully  supplied 
when  he  attempts  moral  subjects,  as  in  "The  Chambered 
Nautilus,"  where,  though  the  comparison  of  the  grow 
ing  mollusk  with  the  expanding  human  soul  is  beautiful, 
the  preaching  is  a  little  trite. 

As  regards  the  form  of  his  poetry,  Holmes  is  a  sur 
vival  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  his  boyhood,  he  was 
a  devoted  admirer  of  Pope,  but  instead  of  abandoning  the 
style  of  the  Augustans,  as  Bryant  and  Lowell  abandoned 
or  outgrew  it,  he  chose  rather  to  perfect  himself  in  it; 
until,  somewhat  more  plastic  than  it  was  in  his  models, 
somewhat  modernised  and  provincial,  that  style  became 
his  normal  accent.  Having  Holmes'  purpose  in  view,  one 
may  add  that  no  poet  in  America  has  acquired  a  surer 
control  over  his  medium.  Within  this  medium  he  was 
able  to  unite  sparkle,  humour,  clearness,  good  sense,  and 
oratorical  emphasis.  It  is  the  opinion  of  several  very  able 
critics  that  no  one  in  his  century  can  vie  with  him  in  the 
art  of  writing  verses  for  an  occasion.  Here  is  the  source 
not  only  of  his  strength  but  also  of  his  weakness.  A  large 
proportion  of  his  verse  is  of  mainly  local  or  temporary 
interest.  The  poems  which  he  offered  year  by  year  at 
the  exercises  of  the  Harvard  Commencement  will  year  by 
year  engender  less  enthusiasm.  A  constructive  criticism, 
however,  will  lay  stress,  not  on  his  inheritance  of  New 
England  provincialism  or  his  slight  tendency  to  be  flip 
pant,  but  on  his  kindliness,  his  inexhaustible  good  humour, 
his  quick  and  darting  intellectual  curiosity,  and  on  the 
appeal  which  his  sprightly  moralising  makes  to  the  young. 
It  is  not  a  little  thing  to  say  of  a  wit  and  a  power  of 
epigram  like  his  that  they  were  ever  genial,  and  ever  on 
the  side  of  something  better  than  a  merely  conventional 
morality. 

John  Greenleaf  Whittier. — In  so  brief  a  section,  it  has 


The  Poets  297 

seemed  impossible  to  offer  more  than  a  few  scattered  re 
marks  on  the  poetry  that  arose  in  both  the  North  and  the 
South  in  connection  with  slavery  and  the  Civil  War. 
Something  has  been  said  of  Confederate  writers,  including 
Timrod  and  Lanier;  more  might  be  added  on  the  patriotic 
verse  of  Lowell  and  Longfellow,  Emerson  and  Holmes, 
and  a  throng  of  lesser  men,  who  sang  to  the  North  of 
courage  and  consolation,  or  attacked  those  whom  they 
considered  the  foes  of  the  Republic  at  home  or  abroad. 
One  poetess,  yet  living,  Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe  (born  in 
1819),  immortalised  herself  in  1862  by  her  "  Battle- Hymn 
of  the  Republic,"  a  piece  breathing  the  very  essence  of 
righteousness  and  love  of  country,  and  having  a  value  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  rest  of  her  work.  Something 
similar  must  be  said  of  Thomas  B.  Read  (1822-72)  and 
his  popular  " Sheridan's  Ride"  (1865).  The  true  bard  of 
the  battle-field  and  bivouac,  of  course,  was  Walt  Whitman, 
who,  as  a  nurse  in  the  Union  army,  had  actual  experience 
of  war.  If,  however,  any  one  person  is  to  be  singled  out 
from  his  century  as  the  proclaimer  of  American  freedom, 
this  must  be  Whittier;  and  that  too,  it  might  almost  be 
said,  in  spite  of  his  heredity,  his  early  hopes,  and  his 
natural  bent.  At  least,  his  Quaker  blood  and  his  love 
for  the  peaceful  ways  of  nature  would  not  designate  him 
for  the  office  of  poet  militant.  Furthermore,  if  Whittier 's 
art  and  sentiment  in  the  progress  of  years  elicit  more  and 
more  admiration  from  qualified  arbiters,  such  admiration 
will  be  mainly  bestowed,  not  on  his  war  lyrics  or  his  de 
nunciations  of  slavery,  but  on  his  hymns,  his  legends  of 
New  England,  and  his  rustic  idyls — above  all,  on  "Snow 
Bound." 

He  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  on  Decem 
ber  17,  1807,  springing  from  pious  English  stock,  in  a 
family  that  belonged  to  the  Society  of  Friends.  A  minute 
and  animated  picture  of  his  home  and  its  inmates  is  given 
in  "Snow  Bound."  Whittier's  opportunities  for  regular 


298  The  Nineteenth  Century 

schooling  were  slender.  Though  he  did  not  inherit  the 
rugged  strength  of  his  ancestors,  his  help  was  required  on 
the  farm;  and  his  father,  without  absolutely  discouraging 
the  lad's'  effort  to  win  an  education,  was  reluctant  to  see 
him  busied  with  a  useless  or  dangerous  plaything  such  as 
their  sect  generally  regarded  poetry.  The  boy  attended 
district  school,  read  the  few  books  that  were  in  his  home, 
and  even  managed  to  obtain  copies  of  Burns  and  Shake 
speare,  and  a  novel,  perused  in  secret,  of  Scott.  His 
mother  was  inwardly  gratified  by  the  lines  which  he  wrote 
under  the  inspiration  of  Burns.  When  his  sister  clan 
destinely  forwarded  one  of  his  poems  to  The  Free  Press 
of  Newburyport,  and  thus  paved  the  way  for  an  acquaint 
ance  between  Whittier  and  the  editor,  William  Lloyd  Gar 
rison,  the  trend  of  the  young  man's  life  was  determined. 
Thanks  to  the  influence  of  Garrison,  and  by  the  strictest 
husbanding  of  his  own  means,  Whittier  was  able  to  pass, 
in  all,  a  year  at  the  new  Haverhill  Academy.  "Thus 
ended  his  school-days,"  says  his  biographer,  Pickard;  "but 
this  was  only  the  beginning  of  his  student  life.  By  wide 
and  well-chosen  reading,  he  was  constantly  adding  to  his 
stores  of  information.  While  revelling  in  the  fields  of  Eng 
lish  literature,  he  became  familiar  through  translations 
with  ancient  and  current  literature  of  other  nations,  and 
kept  abreast  of  all  political  and  reformatory  movements." 
In  the  development  of  his  thought,  he  owed  most  to  the 
Bible,  to  the  tracts  of  the  Friends,  and  to  the  poetry  of 
Burns.  The  mainspring  of  his  activity,  whether  as  student, 
poet,  politician,  or  anti-slavery  agitator,  was  an  intense 
desire  to  be  useful  to  his  kind,  coupled  with  a  burning 
belief  in  the  sacredness  of  individual  liberty.  During  his 
early  manhood,  he  continued  to  write  verse,  sending  it  to 
various  New  England  periodicals;  and  he  became  editor, 
successively  of  a  Boston  trade  journal,  of  The  Haverhill 
Gazette,  and  of  The  New  England  Magazine.  Journalism 
helped  him  to  enter  politics,  and  in  1832  the  Whigs  of 


The  Poets  299 

his  native  place  seemed  ready  to  elect  him  to  Congress. 
After  careful  deliberation,  he  renounced  his  political  as 
pirations,  not  without  an  inward  struggle,  and  decided  to 
lend  his  energies  to  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery,  to  assist 
the  discredited  and  obscure  band  led  by  Garrison.  "My 
lad,"  so  in  after  years  he  counselled  a  youth  of  fifteen, 
"if  thou  wouldst  win  success,  join  thyself  to  some  un 
popular  but  noble  cause."  With  all  his  idealism — let  us 
rather  say,  on  account  of  his  thoroughgoing  idealism — 
Whittier  was  thoroughly  practical.  He  had  keen  insight 
into  the  characters  of  men,  and  knew  how  to  turn  their 
motives,  both  good  and  bad,  to  account;  his  political 
sagacity,  which,  with  his  untiring  industry,  made  him  one 
of  the  most  capable  workers  on  the  side  of  Abolition,  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  rise  of  Charles  Sumner  to  a 
position  of  beneficent  influence.  Ever  frail  in  health,  yet 
labouring  on,  and  subjected  more  than  once  to  personal 
violence  at  the  hands  of  opponents,  Whittier  had  the  sat 
isfaction  of  seeing  the  movement  which  he  championed 
emerge  from  persecution  into  triumph.  Regarded  super 
ficially,  his  devotion  delayed  his  own  progress  as  an  artist, 
and  his  best  poetry  came  late.  In  a  deeper  sense,  he 
could  not  have  developed  into  the  poet  that  he  became 
without  living  the  life  that  he  did. 

In  a  general  way  his  work  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts — that  produced  during  his  more  active  interest 
in  journalism  and  politics,  and  that  produced  after  his 
retirement.  In  1831  he  published  his  "Legends  of  New 
England  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  a  pamphlet,  and  in  1832, 
another  pamphlet,  "Moll  Pitcher,"  neither  of  them  of 
much  interest  save  in  comparison  with  his  better  choice 
of  subjects  and  better  handling  at  a  later  date.  A 
third  pamphlet,  "Justice  and  Expediency"  (1833),  pub 
lished  at  his  own  expense  and  with  a  full  conscious 
ness  of  its  probable  effect,  was  the  document  that  severed 
him  from  the  dominant  party  and  openly  leagued  him  with 


300  The  Nineteenth  Century 

the  Abolitionists.  "Mogg  Megone"  (1836),  his  first  bound 
volume,  which  he  afterward  vainly  tried  to  suppress,  was 
published  after  he  became  a  secretary  of  the  American 
Anti-Slavery  Society.  The  next  year  (1837),  Isaac  Knapp, 
without  consulting  Whittier,  issued  a  collection  of  "Poems 
Written  during  the  Progress  of  the  Abolition  Movement  in 
America."  It  was  followed  in  1838  by  an  authorised 
collection.  The  poet  represented  Haverhill  in  the  Mas 
sachusetts  Legislature  in  1835;  ill-health  prevented  his 
finishing  a  second  term.  In  1837  he  went  to  Philadelphia 
to  aid  "the  venerable  anti-slavery  pioneer  Benjamin  Lundy , 
who  was  editing  The  National  Enquirer  "  afterward  called 
The  Pennsylvania  Freeman.  In  1840  he  retired  to  Ames- 
bury,  Massachusetts,  taking  up  his  abode  with  his  mother 
and  his  sister  Elizabeth.  He  never  married.  At  Ames- 
bury  and  at  Danvers,  in  the  same  county,  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  quiet.  The  record  is  one  of  do 
mestic  peace  and  literary  endeavour,  whose  first  fruits  were 
"Lays  of  .my  Home,  and  Other  Poems"  (1843).  With 
this  volume  Whittier 's  writings  began  to  be  remunerative. 
Some  of  the  more  noteworthy  subsequent  dates  in  his  life 
are  as  follows:  Of  his  prose  works,  "The  Stranger  in 
Lowell"  appeared  in  1845,  " Supernaturalism  in  New  Eng 
land"  in  1847,  "Literary  Recollections"  in  1854.  From 
the  founding  of  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  in  1857,  Whittier 
was  a  most  welcome  contributor.  He  also  edited  John 
Woolman's  Journal,  and  in  other  ways  displayed  interest 
in  the  writings  of  the  Friends.  "Voices  of  Freedom" 
(1849)  was  the  first  comprehensive  edition  of  his  poems. 
He  published  "Songs  of  Labour"  in  1850,  "A  Sabbath 
Scene"  in  1853,  "Home  Ballads"  in  1860,  "National 
Lyrics"  in  1865.  After  the  war,  his  most  important 
publications  included  "Snow  Bound"  (1866),  "Maud 
Muller"  (1867),  "Ballads  of  New  England"  (1869), 
"Miriam  and  Other  Poems"  (1871),  "Mabel  Martin" 
(1874),  "Hazel  Blossoms"  (1875),  "Poems  of  Nature" 


The  Poets  301 

(1885),  "St.  Gregory's  Quest,  and  Recent  Poems"  (1886). 
His  last  collection,  "At  Sundown"  (1890),  was  dedicated 
to  E.  C.  Stedman,  and  closed  with  a  valediction  to  Dr. 
Holmes.  Many  of  Whittier's  poems  were  first  published 
in  magazines;  "Maud  Muller"  appeared  in  The  National 
Era,  in  1854. 

Whittier's  personality  was  one  of  indescribable  attrac 
tiveness.  He  was  gentle,  yet  full  of  repressed  fire,  an 
ardent  nature  that  had  steadily  submitted  to  the  Christian 
spirit  of  self-control.  He  had  the  inward  beauty  that 
springs  from  generous  impulses  under  the  habitual  guidance 
of  principle  and  forethought.  Toward  his  opponents  he 
showed  no  rancour;  he  strove  against  parties,  not  individ 
uals;  and  he  commanded  the  respect  of  his  adversaries. 
If  he  had  a  foible,  it  was  his  delight  in  playful  teasing. 
He  never  visited  a  theatre  or  a  circus  in  his  life.  He  is 
described  in  his  early  manhood  as  "tall,  slight,  and  very 
erect,"  of  a  distinguished  presence,  yet  bashful — but  never 
awkward.  His  eye  was  brilliant  and  expressive.  In  ma 
turity,  his  face  in  repose  was  almost  stern,  but  a  smile 
would  light  up  his  entire  countenance.  "His  voice  in 
reading  was  of  a  quality  entirely  different  from  that  in 
conversation — much  fuller  and  deeper."  In  later  years, 
"while  retaining  a  lively  interest  in  all  literary  and  political 
matters  and  keeping  abreast  of  current  events,  he  dwelt 
most  intently  .  .  .  upon  the  great  spiritual  and  eternal 
realities  of  God.  By  the  open  fire  in  the  evening  he  would 
talk  for  hours  upon  sacred  themes,  ever  grateful  for  the 
rich  blessings  of  his  life  and  looking  with  reverent  curiosity 
towards  the  future.  .  .  .  There  was  not  the  shadow  of 
a  doubt  in  his  mind  concerning  the  immortality  of  the  soul." 
He  died  after  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  on  September  7,  1892, 
and  was  buried  at  Amesbury. 

In  a  recent  and  praiseworthy  volume  of  "The  Chief 
American  Poets,"  Dr.  C.  H.  Page  has  included  a  longer 
list  of  selections  from  Whittier  than  from  Longfellow,  al- 


302  The  Nineteenth  Century 

though  the  contributions  representing  Whittier  occupy  less 
space.  This  is  significant.  Whittier  was  mainly  a  writer 
of  short  poems.  In  the  ballad  he  had  a  form  suited  to 
the  general  taste,  and  to  his  aim  of  stinging  a  sluggish 
populace  into  revolt  against  slavery.  He  painted  that  in 
stitution  in  its  most  repellent  aspects,  seeing  nought  of 
the  glamour  which  Southern  writers  have  shed  over  plan 
tation  life  as  it  existed  before  the  war.  Living  in  the 
North,  he  saw  something  of  escaping  and  recaptured  ne 
groes.  His  glance  was  very  direct;  he  described  matters 
simply;  he  accomplished  the  task  that  he  set  himself. 
Among  his  lyrics  of  the  war,  "Barbara  Frietchie"  is  alto 
gether  the  best  known — not  with  complete  justice  to  others, 
for  example  "The  Watchers."  To  his  treatment  of  tales 
and  legends  of  colonial  New  England  Whittier  brought  an 
inveterate  hatred  of  persecution  and  oppression  in  every 
shape.  Accordingly,  many  of  his  narratives,  like  "Cas 
sandra  Southwick,"  touch  on  wrongs  attempted  or  inflicted 
upon  the  early  Quakers.  As  an  interpreter  of  colonial 
life  Whittier  comes  second  only  to  Hawthorne.  As  a 
herald  of  the  beauty  in  flower  and  hill  and  stream,  in 
"The  Trailing  Arbutus,"  "Among  the  Hills,"  "The  Merri- 
mac,"  he  is  second  to  none  in  America.  True,  he  does 
not  always  refrain  from  what  Ruskin  has  called  the  pathetic 
fallacy,  so  that  he  descries  in  the  face  of  nature  moods 
that  are  really  in  the  heart  of  man;  but  he  does  this  more 
rarely  than  his  contemporaries.  In  his  revelation  of  humble 
and  rustic  types,  "Maud  Muller,"  "The  Barefoot  Boy," 
"The  Huskers,"  he  is  almost  the  equal  of  Burns  or  Words 
worth.  He  is  not  their  rival  in  perfection  of  style.  More 
frequently  than  they  he  suffers  from  a  bad  line;  and  his 
rhymes  are  often  defective.  Yet  one  must  not  conclude 
that  he  was  inattentive  to  technique.  On  the  contrary, 
Whittier  was  a  born  artist.  But  the  nice  discipline  of  the 
ear  which  so  many  English  poets  have  owed  to  the  culti 
vation  of  Greek  and  Latin  prosody  was  not  vouchsafed  to 


The  Poets  303 

him;  and  for  his  manner  he  missed  the  advantage  of 
rigorous  criticism.  The  positive  excellence  of  Whittier's 
verse  is  due  to  the  harmonious  blending  and  interworking 
in  him  of  varied  powers.  His  senses  were  alert  and  sure, 
his  humour  was  fine,  his  intellect  strong,  his  pathos  firm. 
He  was  not  afraid  of  a  theme  that  was  tragic.  His  realism 
might  be  compared  to  that  of  Crabbe,  but  it  is  more 
hopeful.  In  his  religious  poems  there  is  a  belief  more 
satisfying  than  transcendental  pantheism;  and  there  is  a 
quality  of  personal  joy  and  optimism  which,  as  we  have 
previously  observed,  is  not  typical  of  American  literature. 

Best  loved  and  saintliest  of  our  singing  train, 
Earth's  noblest  tributes  to  thy  name  belong. 

A  lifelong  record  closed  without  a  stain, 

A  blameless  memory  shrined  in  deathless  song. 

Such  was  Holmes'  eulogy  of  Whittier.  With  it  we  may 
take  leave  of  New  England. 

Bayard  Taylor. — A  Quaker  poet  of  a  different  stamp 
was  the  meteoric  Bayard  Taylor  (1825-78).  His  boyhood 
was  distinguished  by  a  passion  for  roving  and  for  collect 
ing  objects  of  natural  history.  Hie  devotion  to  books  and 
his  distaste  for  labour  on  a  Pennsylvania  farm  did  not  al 
ways  please  his  father,  who  laughed  boisterously,  however, 
when  a  phrenologist  said  of  the  son:  "You  will  never  make 
a  farmer  of  him  to  any  great  extent:  you  will  never  keep 
him  home;  that  boy  will  ramble  around  the  world,  and 
furthermore,  he  has  all  the  marks  of  a  poet."  At  the  age 
of  nineteen,  having  just  published  "Ximena:  or  The  Battle 
of  Sierra  Morena,  and  Other  Poems,"  and  armed  with 
some  introductions  from  N.  P.  Willis,  Taylor  engaged  in 
a  Byronic  pilgrimage  on  the  Continent.  A  half-year  at 
Heidelberg  rendered  him  fluent  in  German.  By  a  cir 
cuitous  route  through  northern  Germany  and  Austria  he 
proceeded  on  foot  to  Italy,  and  from  Italy  through  France 


304  The  Nineteenth  Century 

back  to  England,  supporting  himself  by  correspondence 
which  he  sent  to  The  New  York  Tribune,   The  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  and   The   United  States  Gazette,  and  which 
on  his  return  to  America  he  collected  in  "Views  Afoot" 
(1846).     Our  account  of  his  life  thus  far  gives  a  faint 
impression  of  his  physical  and  mental  activity.     No  ad 
equate  narrative  may  here  be  essayed  of  his  wandering 
and  eventful  career  throughout.     "Views  Afoot"  made  his 
reputation.     By  1848  he  had  become  head  of  the  literary 
department  of  The  New  York  Tribune.     In  1849,  as  cor~ 
respondent  for  The  Tribune,  he  spent  five  months  with 
the  gold-diggers  in  California.     In  1850  he  married  Miss 
Mary  Agnew,  who  was  dying  of  consumption,  and  who 
survived  her  wedding  but  two  months.     In   1851-53   he 
travelled  in   Egypt,   Syria,   Asia   Minor,    Ethiopia,    Spain, 
India,  and  China.     In  1856  he  broke  down  from  overwork 
in  America — lecturing  and  writing — -and  he  went  to  Eu 
rope  again.     In  Germany  (1857)  he  married  the  daughter 
of  an  eminent  astronomer,  P.  A.  Hansen.     In  1857-58  he 
visited  Greece.     Two  years  later,  at  an  expense  of  $17,000, 
he  had  built  a  home,  near  his  birthplace,  Kennett  Square, 
Pennsylvania,  calling  his  estate  "Cedarcroft."     To  settle 
down  in  affluence  had  been  his  cherished  ambition;  but 
this  dream,  and  his  haste  to  realise  it,  embarrassed  him 
financially,  cost  him  much  peace  of  mind,  and  eventually 
cost   him   his   life.     He   never  succeeded   in   resting.     In 
1862-63  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Legation  at  St.  Peters 
burg.     During   other  intervals,    he   lectured   in    America. 
Among  his  lectures  may  be  mentioned  those  delivered  at 
Cornell  University  in  1870,  1871,  1875,  and  1877.     A  large 
part   of  his  correspondence   is  at  present  housed   in  the 
Cornell  University  Library.       His  translation  of  Goethe's 
"Faust,"  Part  First,  appeared  in  1870;  nearly  all  of  the 
first  edition  was  sold  in  one  day.     The  Second  Part  came 
out  in  1871.     Excessive  labour,  an  irregular  and  not  ab 
stemious  way  of  life,  and,  more  especially,  financial  worry 


The  Poets  305 


told  upon  his  constitution.  He  was  destined  never  to  finish 
his  projected  "Life  of  Goethe."  He  had  barely  entered 
upon  his  duties  as  Minister  to  Germany  when  the  collapse 
came.  His  last  words  were,  "I  must  be  away." 

"Taylor,"  says  Albert  H.  Smyth,  "wrote  with  such 
rapidity  that  he  could  complete  a  duodecimo  volume  in  a 
fortnight.  ...  In  a  night  and  a  day,  he  read  Victor 
Hugo's  voluminous  '  La  Legende  des  Siecles,'  and  wrote  for 
The  Tribune  a  review  of  it  which  fills  eighteen  pages  of  his 
'Essays  and  Literary  Notes,'  and  contains  five  considerable 
poems  that  are  translations  in  the  metre  of  the  original." 
His  powers  of  memory  are  said  to  have  been  prodigious. 
He  could  repeat  not  only  from  his  favourite  authors  but 
from  the  futile  compositions  of  poetasters  whose  manu 
scripts  he  had  read  as  an  editor  and  rejected.  He  was 
in  the  habit  of  carrying  his  own  poetry  in  his  head  until 
the  process  of  correction  was  ended.  Accordingly,  the 
perfection  of  his  "copy,"  which  was  written  in  the  neatest 
hand  imaginable,  has  led  various  critics  into  the  error  of 
thinking  that  he  did  not  revise.  His  poetry  was  much 
more  carefully  worked  out  than  his  prose,  upon  which  he 
had  no  thought  of  building  a  reputation.  He  would  spend 
hours  on  the  chiselling  of  a  single  couplet.  His  style  re 
sounds  with  echoes  of  word  and  phrase  from  Byron  and 
Shelley,  indeed  from  the  whole  circle  of  his  reading  in 
both  English  and  German.  Nor  is  it  deficient  in  individ 
uality.  Taylor  has  a  pronounced  cadence  of  his  own. 
Nevertheless  his  poetry  wants  some  quality  or  other  that 
would  make  it  lasting.  Although  in  1896  there  was  a  cult 
of  younger  men  that  studied  and  imitated  him,  his  immense 
vogue  as  a  prose  writer  had  already  waned ;  and  his  eclipse 
as  a  poet  is  now  almost  complete.  In  the  history  of  Ameri 
can  literature  there  is  nothing  stranger  than  this  eclipse. 
Taylor's  learning  was  wide  and  substantial.  He  shrank 
from  no  drudgery  of  preparation.  At  the  age  of  fifty  he 
was  willing  to  begin  the  study  of  Greek.  And  it  was  not 


306  The  Nineteenth  Century 

merely  that  he  was  in  touch  with  his  time  on  all  sides, 
and  able  by  brilliant  arts  to  snare  the  popular  fancy. 
When  he  wrote,  he  knew  what  he  was  talking  about. 
His  "Poems  of  the  Orient"  (1854),  containing  the  Shelley- 
like  "  Bedouin  Song,"  show  deep  sympathy  with  the  cus 
toms  and  passions  of  the  East.  "  Ross  Browne's  Syrian 
dragoman,  when  he  listened  to  the  reading  of  '  Hassan  to 
his  Mare,'  'sprang  up  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  and  protested 
that  the  Arabs  talked  just  that  way  to  their  horses.'" 
Taylor  had  the  suffrages  of  educated  critics  too.  "The 
Picture  of  St.  John"  (1866)  Longfellow  reckoned  "a  great 
poem";  while  Lowell  said  that,  except  "The  Golden 
Legend,"  no  American  poem  could  match  it  in  finish  and 
sustained  power.  "The  Masque  of  the  Gods"  (1872),  an 
endeavour  to  combine  the  ideals  of  Christianity  and  Hel 
lenism,  also  pleased  Longfellow.  "  Lars,  a  Pastoral  Poem" 
1873),  is  a  curious  tale,  with  some  historical  basis;  the 
unwonted  background  of  Norwegian  fiords  makes  part  of 
the  setting  for  a  tragic  romance  among  the  Quakers.  Of 
Taylor's  dramatic  poems  we  shall  hazard  no  discussion; 
besides  "The  Masque  of  the  Gods,"  he  published  "The 
Prophet"  (1874),  whose  scene  is  laid  among  the  Mormons, 
and  "Prince  Deukalion"  (1877),  a  piece  of  symbolism  in 
which  the  author  tried  to  objectify  his  total  conception  of 
human  life  both  here  and  hereafter.  He  felt  as  sure  of 
the  other  world  as  of  this.  In  such  assurance  he  pos 
sessed  the  most  vitalising  belief  that  can  inspire  a  poetic 
soul.  Why,  then,  is  his  poetry  now  disregarded?  Why 
is  it  that  the  production  for  which  the  present  age  is  most 
ready  to  thank  him  is  his  version  of  Goethe's  "Faust"? 
A  tentative  explanation  is  this.  Taylor's  life  was  full  of 
disquiet.  He  never  enjoyed  the  solitude  necessary  to  the 
maturing  of  poetic  sentiment.  He  was  betrayed  by  tem 
poral  ambition  into  posting  over  land  and  ocean  without 
rest.  He  was  too  determined  to  achieve  fame.  There 
are  times  for  action,  and  there  are  times  for  a  wise 


The  Poets  307 

passiveness.     They    also    serve    who    only    stand     and 
wait. 

Walt  Whitman. — His  belief  in  immortality,  in  the  ab 
solute  and  eternal  value  of  each  individual  person  and 
thing,  constitutes  the  main  element  of  permanence  in  the 
writings  of  Walt  (  =  Walter)  Whitman.  He  too  had  in  his 
veins  a  strain  of  blood  from  the  Quakers;  though  he  was 
born  (May  31,  1819)  in  a  family  that  took  little  cognisance 
of  religion.  His  mother,  Louisa  Van  Velsor,  was  of 
mingled  Dutch  and  Welsh  descent,  illiterate,  but  in  the 
eyes  of  her  second  child,  the  poet,  always  "perfect." 
When  this  child  was  four  years  old,  his  father  and  name 
sake,  a  good  carpenter  and  of  honest  Connecticut  ancestry, 
but  a  slipshod  householder,  removed  from  West  Hills, 
Huntington  Township,  Long  Island,  to  the  "village,"  as  it 
then  was,  of  Brooklyn;  not  before  the  impresses  of  rural 
life  had  entered  unawares  into  the  heart  of  the  child; 
and  not  too  late  for  the  life  of  the  future  metropolis  to 
become  an  imperishable  part  of  his  experience.  The 
poet's  formative  years  were  passed  in  the  midst  of  the 
growing  population  centred  at  New  York.  He  attended 
the  public  schools  of  Brooklyn  until  he  was  thirteen,  then, 
with  a  scanty  knowledge  of  reading,  writing,  and  arith 
metic,  entered  a  lawyer's  office  as  errand-boy,  his  employers 
giving  him  access  during  free  hours  "to  a  big  circulating 
library."  "Up  to  that  time,"  he  says,  "this  was  the 
signal  event  of  my  life."  "For  a  time  I  now  revel'd  in 
romance-reading  of  all  kinds;  first  the  'Arabian  Nights,' 
all  the  volumes,  an  amazing  treat.  Then,  with  sorties  in 
very  many  other  directions,  took  in  Walter  Scott's  novels, 
one  after  another,  and  his  poetry."  From  errand-boy  he 
became  typesetter,  varying  his  desultory  labours  for  The 
Patriot,  and  The  Star,  by  excursions  on  Long  Island,  by 
contributing  "sentimental  bits"  to  local  newspapers,  and 
by  active  participation  in  several  debating  societies.  At 


308  The  Nineteenth  Century 

eighteen  he  turned  country  schoolmaster;  and  shifting 
from  that,  he  set  up  as  editor  of  The  Long  Islander,  hiring 
some  help,  but  himself  doing  most  of  the  work,  including 
the  distribution  of  his  weekly  sheet  to  its  patrons.  In 
1841  he  returned  to  New  York,  became  editor  of  The 
Daily  Aurora,  wrote  for  The  Tattler,  and  published  stories 
in  The  Democratic  Review.  In  later  years  it  was  his  "  serious 
wish  to  have  all  these  crude  and  boyish  pieces  quietly 
dropp'd  in  oblivion."  Meanwhile  he  attended  the  theatre, 
continued  his  observation  of  the  crowds  at  the  Brooklyn 
ferries  and  in  the  streets  of  New  York,  and  his  study  of 
nature  on  the  shores  of  Long  Island,  read  newspapers, 
"  went  over  thoroughly  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and 
absorbed  .  .  .  Shakespeare,  Ossian,  the  best  translations 
[available]  of  Homer,  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles,  the  old  Ger 
man  Nibelungen,  the  ancient  Hindoo  poems,  and  one  or 
two  other  masterpieces,  Dante's  among  them."  A  brief 
connection  with  The  Brooklyn  Eagle  was  terminated  by 
Whitman's  falling  out  with  the  radical  faction  of  the 
Democrats;  whereupon  he  seized  "a  good  chance  to  go 
down  to  New  Orleans  on  the  staff  of  The  Crescent,  a  daily 
to  be  started  there."  Accompanied  by  his  younger 
brother,  "Jeff,"  he  crossed  the  Alleghanies,  and  took 
steamer  down  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi — "a  leisurely 
journey  and  working  expedition";  then  "after  a  time 
plodded  back  northward,  up  the  Mississippi,  and  around 
to  and  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes,  ...  to  Niagara  Falls 
and  Lower  Canada,  finally  returning  through  central  New 
York  and  down  the  Hudson ;  travelling  altogether  probably 
8000  miles  this  trip,  to  and  fro."  In  the  experiences  of 
his  life  up  to  this  point  lay  the  materials  for  his  "  Leaves 
of  Grass,"  which  he  published  at  his  own  expense  in 
1855,  having  done  part  of  the  typesetting  himself.  A 
copy  sent  to  Emerson  elicited  from  him  a  letter  in  which 
the  book  was  characterised  as  "the  most  extraordinary 
piece  of  wit  and  wisdom  that  America  has  yet  contributed." 


>The  Poets  309 

The  next  year  Whitman  brought  out  a  second  and  ampli 
fied  edition,  printing  Emerson's  laudatory  letter  and  his 
own  answer  in  the  Preface,  and  on  the  back  the  quotation, 
"I  greet  you  at  the  beginning  of  a  great  career,"  with 
Emerson's  name  beneath.  This  act  of  questionable  taste 
failed  to  augment  the  sale  of  the  volume;  nor  was  the 
edition  of  1860  more  successful.  In  1862,  Whitman's 
younger  brother  having  been  wounded  during  service  in 
the  Union  Army,  the  poet  was  brought  into  contact  with 
the  army  hospitals.  He  continued  his  ministrations  to  the 
sick  and  suffering  almost  uninterruptedly  until  the  hos 
pitals  in  Washington  were  closed.  "  From  cot  to  cot 
they  called  him,  often  in  tremulous  tones  or  in  whispers; 
they  embraced  him,  they  touched  his  hand,  they  gazed 
at  him.  To  one  he  gave  a  few  words  of  cheer,  for  another 
he  wrote  a  letter  home,  ...  to  another,  some  special 
friend,  very  low,  he  would  give  a  manly  farewell  kiss.  He 
did  the  things  for  them  which  no  nurse  or  doctor  could  do, 
and  he  seemed  to  leave  a  benediction  at  every  cot  as  he 
passed  along."  By  sheer  personal  magnetism  he  saved 
many  lives.  The  record  of  his  connection  with  the  war  is 
to  be  found  in  his  "Specimen  Days,"  in  the  posthumous 
collection  of  letters  entitled  "The  Wound-Dresser"  (1898), 
in  "  Drum  Taps,"  published  in  1865,  and  in  the  "  Sequel  to 
Drum  Taps,"  which  contained  his  poems  on  Lincoln 
(among  them  the  threnody,  "O  Captain!  My  Captain!"), 
published  later  in  the  same  year.  Shortly  after  the  war 
was  over,  Whitman,  who  had  found  a  place  as  clerk  in  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  was  discharged  by  Secretary 
Harlan,  Harlan  having  discovered  the  authorship  of 
"Leaves  of  Grass,"  in  his  opinion  "an  indecent  book." 
The  poet  quickly  received  another  position,  in  the  office 
of  the  Attorney-General;  and  his  enthusiastic  friend  and 
champion,  W.  D.  O'Connor,  brought  out  a  defence  of 
Whitman,  written  in  terms  of  exaggerated  praise,  under 
the  famous  title  of  "The  Good  Grey  Poet."  A  fourth 


310  The  Nineteenth  Century 

edition  of  "Leaves  of  Grass,"  revised,  and  supplemented 
by  "Drum  Taps,"  was  published  in  1867;  a  fifth,  includ 
ing  the  "Passage  to  India,"  in  1871.  The  sixth  and 
seventh  editions  appeared  in  1876  and  1881-1882 ;  the  eighth 
(1888-1889)  contained  in  addition  "November  Boughs," 
and  the  ninth  (1891—1892)  "Good-bye  my  Fancy."  In 
1873,  Whitman,  disabled  by  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  gave  up 
his  position  in  Washington  and  removed  to  Camden,  New 
Jersey,  where  he  lived  with  George  Whitman  until  1879. 
By  this  time  he  had  so  far  recovered  that  he  could  make 
a  journey  to  the  West,  followed  by  another,  the  next  year, 
to  Canada.  In  1881,  the  sale  of  his  works  allowed  him  to 
settle,  at  Camden,  in  a  home  of  his  own.  Here  he  lived 
in  comparative  comfort,  the  object  of  a  good  deal  of 
curiosity,  receiving  visitors,  some  of  them  very  distin 
guished,  and,  as  his  strength  allowed,  adding  to  his  stock 
of  verse.  In  1888,  he  had  a  second  stroke  of  paralysis,  but 
he  lived  on,  preserving  his  courage  and  mental  alertness, 
until  1892.  He  died  on  March  26th  of  that  year.  If  we 
can  credit  his  statement  made  in  1890,  he  was  probably 
survived  by  four  out  of  six  children  that  were  not  born  in 
wedlock. 

In  many  ways,  Whitman  corresponds  to  the  ideal 
presented  in  the  "natural  man"  of  Rousseau;  if  space 
allowed,  a  profitable  comparison  might  be  made  between 
"the  good  grey  poet"  and  the  French  forerunner  of 
American  democracy.  At  the  outset,  the  excessive  senti- 
mentalism  of  Rousseau  would  constitute  a  patent  difference. 
But  Whitman's  assumption  of  equality  among  individuals, 
in  so  far  as  they  are  not  spoiled  by  what  he  deems  a  false 
and  artificial  education,  is  nothing  new  to  the  reader  of 
Rousseau;  and  his  preference  of  the  "powerful,  unedu 
cated,"  raw  material  of  humanity  has  its  counterpart  in 
the  sympathetic  attitude  of  Rousseau  toward  the  burgher 
and  peasant  classes  which  formed  the  part  of  society  that 
he  really  understood.  Moreover,  both  of  these  authors 


The  Poets 

demand  an  individual  standard — which  is  no  standard — • 
of  judgment.  Both  desire  to  be  appreciated,  yet  refuse 
to  be  appraised  according  to  standards  which  the  cumu 
lative  wisdom  of  mankind  in  the  past,  of  the  greatest 
democracy,  has  attained  to  and  approved.  Both  try  to 
regard  organisation  and  the  subordination  of  one  person 
or  thing  to  another  as  unnatural.  In  the  case  of  Whit 
man  at  least,  it  is  for  want  of  philosophical  standards, 
and  for  want  of  a  consistent  effort  to  determine  what  is 
meant  by  nature  and  natural,  that  the  so-called  literature 
of  democracy  has  been  so  hard  to  measure. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  if  we  are  to  measure  Whit 
man  at  all,  we  must  make  certain  postulates.  For  example, 
we  must  postulate  that  restraint  in  literature,  as  in  life,  is 
a  law  of  nature.  This,  Whitman  is  not  disposed  to  admit. 
In  private  life,  it  is  true,  he  was  more  temperate  and  con 
tinent  than  certain  passages  in  "Leaves  of  Grass"  led 
casual  readers  to  surmise.  But  he  saw  fit  to  beget  chil 
dren,  out  of  wedlock,  without  assuming  the  responsibility 
of  their  nurture  and  education.  Are  the  duties  which 
modern  society  lays  upon  parents  less  natural  than  the 
alleged  practice  of  Rousseau,  or  are  they  more?  Again, 
Whitman  decides  to  address  the  public  in  the  guise  of  a 
poet.  Now  in  practice,  be  it  observed,  he  is  much  truer 
to  the  demands  of  a  poetic  ear  than  are  many  of  our  con 
ventional  versifiers;  and  though  he  has  a  predilection  for 
colloquial  diction  and  syntax,  he  is  in  his  own  way  not 
unscrupulous  in  the  matter  of  technique.  The  changes 
that  he  made  in  successive  editions  of  his  main  work, 
"Leaves  of  Grass,"  are  of  deep  interest  to  the  student  of 
poetic  art.  At  the  same  time,  he  repudiates  literary  con 
vention,  and  recognizes  no  law  as  binding  upon  one  who 
contracts  to  write  for  his  fellow  men,  save  the  law  of  his 
individual  being.  There  is,  however,  no  law,  or  science, 
or  art,  of  the  individual  as  such.  Poetry,  according  to 
the  deepest  thinkers  on  this  subject,  is  the  rhythmical 


312  The  Nineteenth  Century 

utterance  of  the  individual  in  harmony  with  universal  law; 
and  criticism  has  for  its  province  the  recognition  of  that 
universal  law  in  the  particular  poet.  In  so  far,  then,  as 
Whitman's  irregularly  trained  personality  succeeds  in  ex 
pressing  what  is  true  for  all  men,  or  for  many,  or  for  repre 
sentative  and  typical  men,  uttering  that  truth  in  terms 
that  are  both  choice  and  generally  intelligible, — in  so  far 
as  he  actually  conforms  to  the  best  conventions — he  is  a 
great  poet,  perhaps  our  greatest  native  poet.  He  suc 
ceeds  often.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  he  is  most  successful 
when,  as  in  his  lament  for  Lincoln,  he  adopts  a  regular 
metrical  form. 

On  Whitman's  achievement  as  spokesman  of  modern 
democracy  perhaps  too  much  stress  has  already  been  laid. 
Following  his  own  lead,  his  interpreters  have  been  inclined 
to  associate  his  idiosyncrasies,  his  departures  from  the 
normal,  his  lapses  from  good  taste  in  referring  to  the 
physiology  of  sex,  too  closely  with  the  nature  of  this 
achievement.  In  dealing  with  the  "  poetry  of  democracy," 
it  seems  to  have  escaped  observation  that  an  age  of  popular 
freedom  and  republican  ideals  may  produce  a  literature 
of  high  refinement  and  perfect  balance  between  literary 
tradition  and  the  impulses  of  the  individual  author. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  masterpieces  of  art  which 
ennobled  Athens  under  Pericles  were  the  expression  of — 
for  Greece — an  age  of  democracy;  and  that  the  epics  of 
Milton,  however  conventional  in  one  sense,  were  the  out 
pourings  of  a  nobler  champion  of  liberty  than  Whitman. 
Referring  to  the  practice  of  studying  his  illustrious  prede 
cessors,  Whitman  has  said:  "Now,  if  eligible,  0  that  the 
great  masters  might  return  and  study  me!"  Something 
like  this  is  sure  to  take  place.  In  order  to  appreciate 
him  rightly,  we  must  confront  him,  full  of  the  spirit  of 
those  authors,  Sophocles,  Dante,  Milton,  and  their  peers, 
by  the  standard  of  whom  one  is  bound  to  estimate  poetry. 
If  thus  confronted,  Whitman's  lustre,  so  bright  in  the 


The  Poets  313 

eyes  of  his  cult,  begins  to  wane;  still,  the  tributes  paid 
him  by  W.  M.  Rossetti,  Freiligrath,  Dowden,  Bjornson, 
Symonds,  may  not  lightly  be  set  aside.  Taken  at  its 
best,  his  poetry,  as  Emerson  said,  "has  the  best  merits, 
namely,  of  fortifying  and  encouraging."  His  prose  works 
ought  not  to  be  dismissed  so  summarily  as  must  here  be 
the  case;  being  less  subject  to  suspicious  innovation  than 
his  verse,  conforming  naturally  to  expected  canons,  his 
prose,  in  particular  his  prose  criticism,  is  well  worth  study. 
It  is  direct.  Genius,  said  Whitman,  is  almost  one  hundred 
per  cent  directness. 

Bret  Harte,  Joaquin  Miller,  Edward  Rowland  Sill. — 
We  turn  to  the  poetry  of  the  Far  West.  Francis  Bret 
Harte  (1839-1902),  born  at  Albany,  New  York,  after  a 
varied  youth  in  California  won  a  sudden  renown  through 
his  "Heathen  Chinee"  and  "Condensed  Novels."  His 
later  success  as  a  prolific  writer  of  short  stories  tended  to 
obscure  his  talent  as  a  humourist  in  verse ;  and  even  in  the 
present  decade,  when  his  death  has  called  fresh  attention 
to  the  value  of  his  literary  work  as  a  whole,  his  poetry  is 
hardly  known  as  it  should  be.  Probably  in  the  course  of 
years  his  "East  and  West  Poems"  (1871)  and  "Echoes 
of  the  Foothills"  (1874)  will  entertain  more  readers  than 
they  now  do  in  comparison  with  "The  Luck  of  Roaring 
Camp."  There  is  likely  to  come  a  time  when  pioneer  life 
among  the  gold-mines  will  appeal  less  than  it  does  to 
the  present  generation;  whereas  the  permanent  aspects  of 
external  nature,  as  Harte  has  caught  them  in  "Crotalus," 
can  never  cease  to  interest.  The  details  of  his  life  are 
recounted  in  another  part  of  this  volume. 

Cincinnatus  Hiner  Miller  (born  1841),  another  celeb 
rity  of  the  West,  was  reared  in  a  log-cabin  in  Indiana. 
After  a  few  years  of  life  on  a  farm  in  Oregon,  he  went 
to  the  gold-fields  of  California.  When  he  had  met  almost 
every  kind  of  experience  imaginable,  he  studied  law,  and 


314  The  Nineteenth  Century 

practised  in  Oregon.  In  1870  he  brought  out  a  small 
volume  of  poems,  one  of  them  entitled  "Joaquin,"  the 
name  of  a  Mexican  brigand,  Joaquin  Murietta,  in  whose 
defence  he  had  already  written,  and  henceforth  his  pen- 
name.  His  volume,  "Songs  of  the  Sierras,"  for  which  he 
at  first  vainly  tried  to  find  a  publisher,  produced,  when 
finally  accepted  and  issued,  a  sensation  that  recalled  the 
days  of  Byron.  His  vogue  has  since  declined,  though  he 
is  still  read,  a  collective  edition  of  his  poems  having  been 
published  in  1897. 

Much  less  famous  than  either  Harte  or  Miller,  not 
having  the  virility  of  the  former,  yet  possessing  a  finer 
sensibility  than  the  latter,  was  Edward  Rowland  Sill 
(1841-1887) ,  a  third  poet  of  the  Far  West.  Sprung  from  a 
family  in  Connecticut,  a  teacher  in  Cuyahoga  Falls,  Ohio, 
finally  professor  of  English  literature  in  the  University  of 
California,  Sill,  in  "Hermione,  and  Other  Poems,"  "The 
Hermitage,  and  Later  Poems"  (1867),  "The  Venus  of 
Milo,  and  Other  Poems,"  published  (1888)  after  his  death, 
sent  forth  a  rill  of  poetry,  slender  but  pure.  In  the  opinion 
of  his  friends  and  many  besides,  Sill's  death  cut  short  a 
poetic  career  of  unusual  promise.  His  poems  were  col 
lected  in  1902,  in  a  single  volume,  and  again  in  1906;  in  the 
latter  edition  they  are  arranged  chronologically. 

Miscellaneous  and  Later  Poets. — Under  this  heading 
must  be  gathered  a  handful  of  writers  whom  the  classi 
fication  thus  far  adopted  has  not  accounted  for,  some  of 
whom  would  not  easily  admit  of  classification.  However, 
it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  Manual  to  consider  in  detail 
the  current  writers  of  verse  throughout  America,  among 
whom  distinctions  of  value  can  rarely  be  established. 

Hans  Breitmann. — Charles  Godfrey  Leland  (1824-1903) 
might  be  associated  with  Bayard  Taylor.  He  is  said  to 
have  neglected  mathematics  at  Princeton  for  Carlyle  and 


The  Poets  315 

Spinoza;  he  studied  abroad,  returned  to  Philadelphia  to 
engage  in  the  practice  of  law,  but  gave  this  up  for  work  as 
an  editor.  During  the  Civil  War  his  pen  was  active  in 
defence  of  the  Union.  Afterward  he  became  popular 
through  his  "Hans  Breitmann  Ballads,"  in  picturesque 
dialect  displaying  the  humour  of  the  shrewd  jovial  Ger 
man  immigrant  before  the  war.  Leland  made  himself  an 
authority  on  gypsy  lore,  and  was  busy  in  several  fields  as 
a  translator.  During  his  long  residence  abroad,  he  enjoyed 
an  acquaintance  with  many  distinguished  men  of  letters 
in  Europe.  Besides  his  ballads  in  dialect  and  transla 
tions  from  J.  V.  Scheff el,  he  wrote  verse  of  serious  intent  ; 
for  example,  "The  Music  Lesson  of  Confucius,  and  Other 
Poems,"  in  which,  like  Taylor,  he  desired  to  unite  the  ideals 
of  Christianity  with  those  of  Hellenism.  The  deaths  of 
Leland,  Stoddard,  Aldrich,  and  Stedman  within  the  last 
five  years  took  almost  the  last  survivors  of  an  elder  genera 
tion  in  American  letters. 

Richard  Henry  Stoddard. — In  the  year  of  his  death, 
1903,  R.  H.  Stoddard  was  called  by  his  friend,  E.  C.  Sted 
man,  "the  most  distinguished  of  living  American  poets." 
He  was  born  in  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  July  2,  1825. 
Educated  in  the  schools  of  New  York  City,  he  supplemented 
by  private  reading  his  brief  opportunities  for  regular  study, 
and  from  worker  in  a  foundry  became  connected  with 
Bayard  Taylor  as  a  journalist.  In  1853,  Hawthorne  aided 
him  in  securing  a  position  in  the  New  York  Custom-House. 
From  1860  to  1870  he  was  literary  editor  of  the  New  York 
World;  in  1880  he  took  a  similar  post  on  The  Mail  and 
Express.  His  first  volume  of  poetry,  "Footprints"  (1849), 
was  afterwards  suppressed;  his  second,  "Poems"  (1852), 
secured  him  an  audience.  "Songs  of  Summer"  (1857)  was 
a  collection  of  poems  that  had  been  printed  in  various 
magazines.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  marked  by  great 
activity  as  an  editor  and  biographer,  somewhat  after  the 


316  The  Nineteenth  Century 

fashion  of  Stedman.  Most  of  his  poetry  subsequent  to 
the  collective  edition  of  1880  is  included  in  "The  Lion's 
Cub,  with  Other  Verse"  (1890).  He  preserved  his  lyrical 
quality  to  a  great  age.  Like  several  of  our  leading  poets, 
Stoddard  reached  his  highest  level  in  dealing  with  the 
theme  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich.— With  his  "Ballad  of  Babie 
Bell"  (1855)  in  the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce, 
Aldrich  (1836-1907)  began  a  career  whose  high -water 
mark  was  the  editorship  of  The  Atlantic  Monthly  from  1881 
to  1890.  His  initial  volume  of  poetry,  published  in  1854, 
was  "The  Bells,"  which  was  succeeded  in  1858  by  "The 
Ballad  of  Babie  Bell,  and  Other  Poems."  Of  his  numerous 
later  poetical  works,  "Pampinea,  and  Other  Poems  "  (1861), 
"Cloth  of  Gold,  and  Other  Poems"  (1874),  "Flower  and 
Thorn"  (1876),  etc.,  perhaps  the  tragedy  of  "Mercedes" 
("Mercedes,  and  Later  Lyrics,"  1884)  deserves  particular 
notice,  having  been  successfully  staged,  a  test  which  few 
dramas  by  American  poets  have  been  able  to  endure. 
Aldrich  was  a  master  of  his  craft.  Deep  in  his  reverence 
for  Tennyson,  whom  he  ranks  third  in  English  poetry — • 
after  Shakespeare  and  Milton, — he  sometimes  exercises  an 
almost  Tennysonian  harmony  in  the  selection  of  detail; 
witness  the  Oriental  luxury  and  splendour  in  "When  the 
Sultan  Goes  to  Ispahan." 

Edmund  Clarence  Stedman. — Stedman's  services  to  litera 
ture  as  a  critic  and  anthologist  are  doubtless  of  much 
greater  importance  than  his  own  poetry;  but  neither  the 
one  nor  the  other  may  be  disparaged.  He  was  born  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1833,  his  mother  (by  her  second 
marriage  Mrs.  J.  C.  Kinney,  the  friend  of  the  Brownings) 
being  a  woman  of  educated  taste  and  herself  a  poet. 
Entering  Yale  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  Stedman  showed 
ability  in  Greek  and  in  English  composition,  and  shortly 


The  Poets 

gained  a  prize  by  his  poem  on  "Westminster  Abbey.'* 
On  account  of  a  boyish  prank  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
college  before  the  end  of  the  course.  Prior  to  the  Civil 
War  he  was  connected  with  The  Norwich  Tribune  and 
Winsted  Herald,  and  for  a  time  with  The  New  York  Tri 
bune;  in  this  he  printed  his  "Tribune  Lyrics"  (among 
them  "Osawatomie  Brown").  From  1861  to  1863  he 
was  war  correspondent  of  the  New  York  World;  later  he 
was  assistant  to  Edward  Bates,  Attorney-General  under 
Lincoln.  His  interest  in  the  first  Pacific  railroad  brought 
him  into  relations  with  Wall  Street,  where,  in  1869,  he 
became  an  active  member  of  the  New  York  Stock  Ex 
change.  Here  he  remained  until  1900,  an  influential 
man  of  affairs,  respected  by  financiers  as  well  as  literary 
men,  amassing  and  enjoying  the  means  which  he  desired 
for  the  pursuits  of  literature.  He  was  a  thorough  patriot, 
an  earnest  advocate  of  international  copyright,  above  all 
a  steady  labourer  for  the  education  of  public  taste.  His 
lectures  on  "The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry,"  de 
livered  first  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  subsequently  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  again  at  Columbia, 
unfolded  the  dignity  of  a  subject  that  is  often  regarded 
as  a  matter  of  indifference.  By  his  "Victorian  Anthology  " 
(1895)  he  gave  further  evidence  of  the  powers  of  selec 
tion  displayed  in  "A  Library  of  American  Literature" 
(1888-1889),  on  which  he  collaborated  with  Ellen  M.  Hutch- 
inson.  His  "American  Anthology"  (1901,  etc.),  several 
times  reissued,  contains  selections  from  about  six  hundred 
American  poets,  with  brief  biographies,  and  is,  to  say  the 
least,  an  indispensable  volume  to  the  general  student  of 
our  literature.  The  present  section  of  this  Manual  is  much 
indebted  to  Stedman's  "Anthology."  One  would  hardly 
make  too  liberal  an  assertion  in  saying  of  Stedman  that  he 
was  the  most  thoroughly  read  man  of  his  time  in  the 
poetry  of  his  own  nation.  It  is  possible  that  he  was  over 
generous  in  his  recognition  of  the  work  of  inferior  authors ; 


318  The  Nineteenth  Century 

but  let  us  not  impute  this  to  him  as  too  serious  a  fault.  Of 
the  fifteen  poems  of  his  own  to  which  he  allowed  admission 
in  the  "American  Anthology"  (sixteen,  counting  the  "Pre 
lude  "  to  the  volume),  the  best  known  are  "The  Discoverer," 
"Pan  in  Wall  Street,"  and  "The  Hand  of  Lincoln."  He 
died  on  January  18,  1908. 

James  Whitcomb  Riley. — This  artist  in  the  "Hoosier" 
dialect  of  Indiana  (born  1853),  though  still  in  middle  life, 
seems  to  belong  with  the  older  rather  than  the  younger 
generation  of  American  poets.  Unwilling  to  follow  his 
father's  profession  of  attorney,  he  early  betook  himself  to 
a  wandering  life,  gaining  experience  of  the  world  as  a 
vendor  of  patent  medicines,  sign-painter,  actor,  and  the 
like.  Settling  at  Indianapolis,  he  became  known  by  his 
contributions  to  various  newspapers,  and  when  his  reputa 
tion  was  established,  won  additional  success  by  public 
readings  from  his  poetry.  His  verse  is  bright  and  crisp, 
and  he  has  pathos,  humour,  and  good  powers  of  descrip 
tion  and  narrative.  He  has  an  unusually  keen  under 
standing  for  the  experiences  of  country  life,  particularly 
of  youth  and  boyhood  in  rural  villages  and  on  the  farm. 
"The  Old  Swimmin'-Hole,  and  'Leven  More  Poems" 
(1883)  was  his  first  notable  venture.  " Af terwhiles "  ap 
peared  in  1888.  Within  ten  years  or  so  he  then  published 
"Old-Fashioned  Roses"  (1888),  "Pipes  o'  Pan  at  Zekes- 
bury"  (1889),  "Rhymes  of  Childhood"  (1890),  "Neigh 
bourly  Poems"  (1891),  and,  among  other  volumes,  "A 
Child-World"  (1896),  and  the  "Rubaiyat  of  Doc  Sifers" 
(1899).  As  a  writer  of  dialect  in  verse,  he  falls  not  very 
far  short  of  Lowell.  His  allusions  to  nature,  to  insect 
life  for  example,  are  simple  and  true.  If  but  a  bird  or 
butterfly  sit  down  beside  him,  he  is  as  happy  as  if  the 
same  were  a  maiden-queen. 

Space   forbids   any   delay   upon   George   Henry   Boker 


The  Poets  3*9 

(1823-1890),  diplomat  and  dramatist,  and  his  metrical 
drama,  "Francesca  da  Rimini"  (1856);  or  Francis  Miles 
Finch  (1827-1907),  professor  in  Cornell  University,  and 
his  celebrated  poem  "The  Blue  and  the  Gray"  (in  The 
Atlantic  Monthly,  1867),  a  gift  of  healing  from  the  North 
to  the  South;  or  John  Hay  (1838-1905),  whose  manifold 
services  to  his  country  were  roofed  and  crowned  with  an 
abiding  interest  in  literature  ("Pike  County  Ballads," 
published  in  The  New  York  Tribune) ;  or  Richard  Watson 
Gilder  (born  1844),  editor  of  The  Century  Magazine, 
social  reformer,  and  author  of  several  volumes  of  finished 
verse;  or  Stephen  Collins  Foster  (1836-1864),  composer, 
whose  songs,  "The  Old  Folks  at  Home,"  "The  Suwanee 
River,"  "My  Old  Kentucky  Home,"  familiar  the  country 
over,  are  significant  of  the  influence  which  the  negroes 
have  exerted  on  the  language  and  art  of  the  whites;  or 
Will  H.  Thompson  (born  1848),  and  "The  High  Tide  at 
Gettysburg";  or  John  Townsend  Trowbridge  (born  1827), 
one  of  the  original  contributors  to  The  Atlantic  Monthly t 
author  of  "The  Vagabonds"  (1863),  and  steeped  in  the 
spirit  of  New  England;  or  John  Boyle  O'Reilly  (1844-1890), 
the  Fenian,  who  escaped  from  imprisonment  in  Australia, 
and  became  a  journalist  in  Boston  ("Songs,  Legends,  and 
Ballads,"  "Songs  of  the  Southern  Seas,"  etc.);  or  Eugene 
Field  (1850-1895),  witty,  eccentric,  friend  and  student  of 
children;  or  Richard  Hovey  (1864-1900),  cut  off  in  the 
flower  of  his  promise  ("Taliesin:  a  Masque,"  1899);  or 
Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  (1872-1906),  the  negro  poet, 
dead  before  his  time,  who  wrote  good  and  stirring  English 
as  well  as  pathetic  dialect;  or  William  Vaughn  Moody, 
professor  in  the  University  of  Chicago  ("The  Masque  of 
Judgment,"  1900);  or  Bliss  Carman  (born  1861)  and 
Clinton  Scollard  (born  1860).  All  these  and  many  more 
must  pass  with  insufficient  notice  or  none;  otherwise  the 
page  would  contain  only  a  meaningless  enumeration  of 
names  and  dates.  As  was  implied  at  the  beginning,  very 


320  The  Nineteenth  Century 

few  American  writers  who  have  won  distinction  in  other 
ways  have  refrained  from  publishing  a  volume  of  lyrics 
"and  other  poems."  Also,  in  spite  of  the  slender  en 
couragement  from  publishers  to  new  authors  of  original 
verse,  the  occasional  volume  from  the  hitherto  and  here 
after  unknown  poetaster,  who  foots  the  bill  for  printing, 
continues  to  emerge  and  sink  again  at  the  present  day. 

The  immediate  outlook  for  poetry  in  the  United  States 
is  not  bright.  It  does  not  appear  that  with  the  material 
growth  of  the  country  we  have  developed  a  unified  national 
spirit  capable  of  expression  at  the  hands  of  a  great  poet, 
were  he  to  arise.  It  does  not  appear  that  we  have  among 
the  younger  men  a  first-class  poet  capable  of  expressing  the 
national  soul,  were  this  more  unified  and  precise.  Further 
more,  the  type  of  humanistic  education  which  fostered  our 
elder  poets  of  New  England  is  generally  discredited,  and 
seems  to  be  passing  away  without  leaving  any  hope  of  a 
popular  training  in  the  near  future  worthy  to  succeed  it. 
Simplicity,  rigour,  precision,  and  accuracy,  all  of  them 
friendly  to  the  poetic  spirit,  and  among  its  necessary  con 
ditions,  have  fewer  and  fewer  champions  in  the  schools. 
Many  subjects  are  studied,  and  almost  nothing  is  mastered 
and  retained.  Memory,  the  mother  of  the  Muses,  is  not 
in  esteem.  "Literature"  is  taught — though  not  learned; 
yet  the  children  know  no  poetry.  Worst  of  all,  and  a 
primary  cause  of  much  of  the  evil,  the  reading  of  standard 
works  within  the  family  is  becoming  less  and  less  common. 
In  particular,  though  there  is  much  talk  about  the  Bible, 
the  Bible,  like  the  classics,  is  becoming  unfamiliar,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  popular  thought  and  style. 

On  the  other  hand,  to  offset  the  deficiency  of  our  second 
ary  schools  and  the  decay  of  culture  in  the  home,  the  last 
thirty  years  have  witnessed  an  immense  expansion  in 
advanced  scholarship,  most  notable,  perhaps,  in  the  inves 
tigation  of  the  vernacular  and  related  literatures.  Gradu 
ate  study  of  English,  and  of  the  literatures  from  which 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    321 

English  literature  has  sprung,  offers  a  refuge  to  such  per 
sons  as  have  a  serious  and  abiding  interest  in  belles-lettres ; 
it  is  undoubtedly  developing  the  personalities  of  investi 
gators  to  the  highest  point  of  efficiency  possible  under 
present  conditions,  and  making  ready  for  another  genera 
tion,  more  fortunate,  whose  poetry  shall  find  root  in  the 
fields  that  are  to-day  so  thoroughly  cultivated;  working 
downward,  it  is  already  tending  to  bring  about  salutary 
changes  here  and  there  in  the  procedure  of  the  schools, 
and  hence  eventually  to  have  an  influence  in  the  home. 
A  generation  of  scholars  to  clear  the  way,  as  in  the  begin 
ning  of  the  Renaissance — to  produce  the  literary  atmosphere 
which  now  is  wanting — may  be  regarded  as  a  hopeful  sign 
of  a  generation  of  poets  to  come.  Finally,  if  American 
poetry  now  seems  moribund,  we  must  yet  remember  the 
eternal  power  that  the  true  poet  is  always  in  alliance  with ; 
the  power  that  at  any  time  can  make  the  poet  say  of  any 
literature:  The  maid  is  not  dead,  but  sleepeth. 1 

IV.       THE  ESSAYISTS  AND  THE  HUMOURISTS. 

English  Influences  on  American  Letters. — Springing 
from  a  common  stock,  the  two  branches  of  eighteenth- 
century  English  literature  showed  many  similarities.  The 
charge  of  imitation  and  even  of  plagiarism  has  been 
brought  against  the  American  writers  of  that  period;  but 
it  seems  in  no  way  unsafe  to  point  to  the  single  origin  as 
the  probable  cause  of  the  same  characteristics  appearing 

1  In  this  sketch  of  American  poetry,  I  have  obviously  had  re 
course  not  merely  to  the  standard  editions  and  biographies  in  the 
case  of  important  authors,  but  in  the  case  of  these,  to  some  extent, 
as  well  as  of  lesser  authors,  to  a  number  of  manuals  and  other 
compilations;  among  them  the  well-known  works  on  American 
literature  by  Bronson,  Hart,  Richardson,  and  Onderdonk,  and  the 
anthologies,  mentioned  in  the  text,  by  Stedman  and  Page.  I  desire 
to  express  freely  my  sense  of  obligation  to  these  sources. — L.  C. 


322  The  Nineteenth  Century 

in  the  literature  produced  here,  and  that  produced  in  the 
mother-country.  No  one  can  deny,  of  course,  that  not  a 
few  of  our  authors  went  to  school  to  Englishmen,  but  the 
assertion  that  America  until  recently  has  produced  nothing 
but  pinchbeck  literature  is  as  false  as  it  is  absurd.  That 
like  produces  like  may  be  a  trite  saying,  but  its  frequent 
repetition  does  not  impair  its  truth.  The  English  mind, 
whether  expressing  itself  at  home  or  in  the  colonies,  natu 
rally  put  forth  the  same  kind  of  shoots :  that  their  develop 
ment  was  not  in  all  respects  equally  rapid,  that  in  time 
they  became  so  much  unlike  as  to  appear  unrelated,  can 
be  traced,  no  doubt,  to  the  unsheltered  fortune  of  the 
American  scion  in  early  days,  and  to  the  complete  re 
moval  of  the  slip  from  the  parent  stem  in  after-years. 

With  this  thought  in  mind,  the  most  thorough-going 
American  may  admit,  without  apologetic  reserve,  that  the 
essayists  of  eighteenth-century  England  have  counterparts 
in  Irving  and  certain  of  his  contemporaries,  and  that  those 
of  a  slightly  later  date  have  much  in  common  with  Emer 
son  and  Thoreau.  Should  one  feel,  however,  that  ex 
cusable  pride  is  to  be  taken  only  in  those  authors  who 
exhibit  qualities  indigenous  to  America,  one  may  triumph 
antly  mention  Warner,  and  Lowell,  and  Margaret  Fuller; 
for,  although  these  essayists  show  the  racial  instinct  of 
English  writers,  they  are  none  the  less  emphatically 
American  in  thought,  tone,  and  expression.  In  passing, 
it  is  perhaps  well  to  notice  that  a  large  number  of  Ameri 
can  writers  have  tried  their  hands  at  more  than  one  form 
of  literature.  For  this  reason  Irving  is  discussed  as  an 
essayist,  although  he  might  be  placed  with  the  humourists, 
or  perhaps  better  still,  with  fiction- writers,  since  he  has 
the  right  to  dispute  with  Poe  the  claim  to  be  regarded 
as  the  progenitor  of  the  American  short  story.  Again, 
Emerson,  like  George  Eliot,  felt  that  his  fame  would 
eventually  rest  upon  his  poetry,  but  his  readers  almost 
always  think  and  speak  of  him  as  an  essayist.  Lowell, 

1 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    323 

Longfellow,  and  Whittier,  on  the  other  hand,  are  properly 
reviewed  at  large  as  poets,  despite  the  fact  that  their 
prose  work  is  not  inconsiderable  nor  unimportant  and 
must  therefore  receive  some  attention  in  even  a  rapid 
survey  of  the  American  essay. 

Washington  Irving. — Washington  Irving  (1783-1859), 
the  first  essayist  of  importance  in  the  National  Period  of 
American  Literature,  was  born  in  New  York  City.  Unable 
on  account  of  ill-health  to  continue  his  education,  Irving 
went  abroad  in  1804.  Returning  two  years  later,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  but  he  never  engaged  in  the  actual 
practice  of  law.  In  1815  Irving  again  went  to  Europe, 
this  time  upon  matters  connected  with  the  cutlery  business 
in  which,  as  silent  partner,  he  was  engaged  with  his  brothers. 
It  was  seventeen  years  before  he  again  set  foot  upon  his 
native  soil,  but  when  he  did  come  back,  he  was  widely 
known,  both  for  his  writings  and  for  his  diplomatic  service 
as  member  of  the  American  legations,  first  at  Madrid 
(1826-1829)  and  later  at  London  (1829-1831).  During  the 
next  decade,  Irving  was  in  this  country,  living  quietly  at 
Sunnyside,  as  he  called  his  home  at  <  Tarry  to  wn-on-the- 
Hudson.  In  1842,  accepting  an  appointment  as  Minister 
to  Spain,  he  went  to  Europe  for  a  third  time  and  re 
mained  abroad  four  years.  Upon  his  return  home,  he 
gave  himself  up  entirely  to  writing,  finishing  his  monu 
mental  work  upon  Washington  but  a  short  time  before 
his  death.  He  is  buried  in  the  Tarrytown  Sleepy-Hollow 
Cemetery — within  sight  of  the  road  down  which  one  of 
his  characters,  Ichabod  Crane,  made  his  precipitous  flight 
in  mad  endeavour  to  escape  the  headless  horseman. 

Irving's  first  book,  "A  History  of  New  York,"  published 
as  from  the  pen  of  "Diedrich  Knickerbocker,"  appeared 
in  1809.  It  attracted  immediate  attention  and  established 
its  author's  reputation  as  a  humourist ;  but  unfortunately 
its  fun  at  the  expense  of  the  ancestors  of  certain  American 


324  The  Nineteenth  Century 

families  roused  not  a  little  rancour.  Irving's  next  work, 
"The  Sketch  Book,"  was  published,  first  in  parts  in  1819, 
and  then  in  two  volumes  in  the  following  year.  This 
book  and  "Bracebridge  Hall,  or  The  Humourists"  (1822), 
"Tales  of  a  Traveller"  (1824),  "The  Alhambra"  (1832), 
and  "Wolfert's  Roost"  (1855),  are  all  miscellaneous  col 
lections  of  sketches,  short  stories,  and  character  studies, 
of  which  one  volume  is  not  inferior  to  another.  The  first 
of  them  received  cordial  recognition  from  Scott,  who  ar 
ranged  for  its  publication  in  London;  and  the  last  had  a 
wide  circulation  both  in  America  and  in  England. 

During  Irving's  first  visit  to  Spain,  he  became  interested 
in  certain  biographical  and  historical  material  there  easily 
accessible,  and  put  it  to  use  when  he  was  writing  "The 
Life  and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus"  (1828), 
"The  Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada"  (1829),  "The 
Voyages  of  the  Companions  of  Columbus"  (1831),  "The 
Alhambra,"  already  mentioned,  and  "The  Life  of  Mahomet " 
(1849).  Upon  Irving's  return  to  America  his  interest  in 
the  same  kind  of  material  continued,  and  led  him  to  publish 
"The  Life  of  Goldsmith"  (1849),  and  "The  Life  of  Washing 
ton"  in  six  volumes  (1855-1859).  Irving's  other  works  are 
"A  Tour  on  the  Prairies"  (1835),  "Astoria"  (1836),  and 
"The  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonne ville"  (1837). 

Irving  was  the  first  American  writer  to  gain  literary 
reputation  abroad;  nor  was  the  interest  which  he  awak 
ened  there  merely  that  of  curiosity  wondering  what  would 
come  out  of  a  wilderness.  It  may  be  that  the  great  bulk 
of  his  work  is  not  widely  read  at  present,  but  such  stories 
as  "Rip  Van  Winkle,"  and  "The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hol 
low,"  such  sketches  as  "The  Stout  Gentleman"  and 
"Moonlight  on  the  Alhambra"  are  perennial.  Irving  was 
hardly  skilful  in  his  use  of  pathos,  degenerating  not  in 
frequently  into  the  sentimental  and  even  into  the  maudlin ; 
yet  the  buoyancy  of  his  fascinating  and  delicate  humour 
has  seldom  been  matched  by  any  other  American  writer. 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    325 

His  graceful,  almost  faultless  style  is  akin  to  that  of  the 
writers  of  The  Spectator,  although  it  savours  now  and  then 
of  Goldsmith,  and  has,  according  to  Scott,  a  dash  of  Swift. 
Perhaps  Lowell  best  summed  up  the  matter  of  Irving  and 
his  style  in  "A  Fable  for  Critics": 

"To  a  true  poet-heart  add  the  fun  of  Dick  Steele, 
Throw  in  all  of  Addison,  minus  the  chill, 

Sweeten  just  to  your  own  private  liking,  then  strain, 
That  only  the  finest  and  clearest  remain, 

And  you  '11  find  a  choice  nature,  not  wholly  deserving 
A  name  either  English  or  Yankee, — just  Irving." 

Bryant  and  Others. — William  Cullen  Bryant  (1794- 
1878)  is  generally  thought  of  as  a  poet,  but  his  prose  was 
not  inconsiderable  either  in  amount  or  in  value.  During 
his  long  connection  with  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  from 
1826  until  the  end  of  his  life,  he  wrote  daily  editorials  of 
high  literary  quality,  contributed  to  many  other  journals, 
and  delivered  frequent  orations  upon  various  subjects. 
A  collection  of  Bryant's  prose  works  in  two  volumes  was 
published  in  1894:  one  who  reads  them  is  convinced  that 
their  author  was  possessed  of  a  clear,  smooth  style,  an 
accurate,  careful  judgment,  and  good  common  sense. 
Whittier  (1807-1892)  and  Longfellow  (1807-1882)  may  not 
improperly  be  mentioned  here,  although,  like  Bryant,  they 
also  are  best  known  as  poets.  Whittier  was  closely  asso 
ciated  with  William  Lloyd  Garrison  in  the  Abolition  move 
ment  and  contributed  much  to  its  literature.  Controversial 
writing,  however,  seldom  lives,  and  Whittier' s  has  not 
proved  an  exception  to  the  rule.  In  addition  to  one  or  two 
attempts  at  novel-writing,  Whittier  published  "Super- 
naturalism  in  New  England"  (1847),  "Old  Portraits  and 
Modern  Sketches"  (1850),  and  "Literary  Recreations" 
(1854);  but  these  works  are  not  important  in  style  or  in 


326  The  Nineteenth  Century 

matter.  The  demands  of  metre  and  rhyme  upon  Whittier 
seem  to  have  prevented  the  appearance,  in  his  poetry,  of 
certain  crudities  which  sadly  mar  his  prose.  Longfellow's 
prose,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  important.  It  is  marked 
by  a  delicacy  and  refinement  which  would  go  far  towards 
keeping  it  well  known,  if  the  author's  greater  fame  as  a 
poet  did  not  eclipse  his  renown  as  a  prose  writer.  In 
addition  to  two  romances,  he  published  "Outre  Mer "  (1825), 
a  volume  in  aim  and  content  somewhat  like  Irving's 
"Sketch  Book";  and  under  the  title  of  "Drift  Wood"  he 
included  in  the  first  edition  of  his  "Complete  Prose  Works" 
(1857)  a  collection  of  stray  essays  and  book  reviews  origi 
nally  contributed  to  various  periodicals. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe. — Edgar  Allan  Poe  (1809-1869),  like  the 
three  authors  just  mentioned,  was  a  poet,  yet  to  his  own 
time  he  was  perhaps  even  better  known  as  a  short  story 
writer  and  essayist.  Opinions  about  the  value  of  his 
literary  work  have  been  as  various  as  those  respecting  his 
character;  but  it  is  safe  to  claim  for  him  no  mean  place 
among  writers  of  criticism.  In  this  department  of  litera 
ture  he  undertook  to  bring  about  a  reform  among  American 
authors  who  had  passed  from  timid  deference  to  English 
opinion  into  the  stage  of  noisy  and  indiscriminate  praise 
of  every  piece  of  writing  produced  in  this  country.  From 
a  study  of  Coleridge,  Poe  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
poetry  was  a  matter  of  "intellectual  happiness";  its  soul 
was  the  imagination.  A  person  of  metaphysical  acumen, 
therefore,  by  noting  how  poetic  moods  are  excited,  could 
produce  a  finer  poem  than  one  who,  lacking  the  analytical 
faculty,  could  only  feel  the  emotions  he  desired  to  arouse 
in  his  readers.  Poe  laid  great  stress,  too,  on  perfection  of 
form  as  of  the  utmost  importance  in  producing  an  effect; 
truth  was  a  secondary  matter,  except  in  detail,  and  as  a 
means  of  securing  assent  to  a  conclusion  which  might  be 
essentially  untruthful.  The  object  of  poetry,  he  thought, 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    327 

is  to  arouse  a  subtle,  indefinite  pleasure;  this  was  imparted 
by  music;  hence  the  necessity  of  melody,  of  the  refrain. 

As  a  critic,  Poe  was  often  savage  in  the  extreme;  but 
it  must  be  remembered,  as  we  look  back  upon  him,  that 
the  urbanity  of  the  modern  book  reviewer  was  then  a 
thing  unknown.  Poe's  literary  judgments  have  in  the  main 
been  justified,  although  some  of  his  unsparing  attacks  in 
"The  Literati  of  New  York"  arouse  resentment  even  at 
this  late  day,  while  his  equally  unrestrained  laudation  of 
certain  of  his  now  wholly  forgotten  contemporaries  leads 
one  near  to  contemptuous  amusement.  Poe's  most  im 
portant  contribution  to  the  theory  of  writing  are  two  essays 
usually  reprinted  with  his  poems;  of  these  "The  Philo 
sophy  of  Composition"  first  appeared  in  Graham's  Maga 
zine  for  April,  1846,  and  "The  Poetic  Principle,"  originally 
a  lecture,  was  printed  in  Sartain's  Magazine  for  October, 
1850.  Perhaps  an  essay  "On  Critics  and  Criticism" 
ought  also  to  be  mentioned;  it  was  first  published  in 
Graham's  Magazine  for  January,  1850. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. — Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  (1803- 
1882),  serious,  high-minded,  and  well  balanced,  affords  a 
striking  contrast  in  almost  every  way  to  Poe.  Born  in 
Boston,  he  was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  at  the  age 
of  nineteen.  After  teaching  school  for  a  time,  he  became 
minister  of  the  Old  North  Church  in  his  native  city,  but 
in  1835  withdrew  from  his  charge  because  of  his  aversion  to 
the  rite  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Taking  up  his  residence  at 
Concord,  Massachusetts,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  years  in 
writing  and  lecturing.  While  engaged  in  the  latter  work 
he  went  as  far  west  as  California  and  made  two  visits 
abroad.  During  the  first,  Emerson  met  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  Landor,  and  De  Quincey,  who  received  him 
graciously,  George  Eliot,  who  referred  to  him  as  "  the  first 
man  she  had  ever  seen,"  and  Carlyle,  who  found  in  the 
visitor  a  hero  well  worthy  of  sincere  admiration.  Dignified 


328  The  Nineteenth  Century 

and  simple  in  manner,  deep  and  kindly  in  thought,  he  found 
contentment  in  an  uneventful  career ;  sympathising  strongly 
with  those  who  would  live  the  life  of  the  spirit,  he  sup 
ported  in  theory  the  Brook  Farm  experiment;  advocating 
anti- slavery  ideas,  he  opened  his  church  to  Abolition  agi 
tators;  but  objecting  on  principle  to  war,  he  proposed  to 
buy  the  slaves  and  educate  them  morally.  He  went  down 
to  his  grave  loved  by  his  neighbours  and  honoured  by  many 
who  knew  him  only  through  his  works. 

Emerson  made  his  earliest  appearance  as  a  writer  in 
a  book  entitled  "Nature"  (1836),  but  he  first  attracted 
real  attention  by  his  Phi  Beta  Kappa  oration  before 
Harvard  College  in  1837.  This  address,  now  published 
in  his  collected  works  as  "The  American  Scholar,"  made 
so  strong  an  appeal  to  his  listeners  to  break  away  from 
the  influence  of  England  in  matters  of  authorship  that, 
Holmes  with  his  usual  felicity  termed  it  "our  literary 
Declaration  of  Independence."  For  three  or  four  years, 
beginning  in  1840,  Emerson  was  editor  of  The  Dial.  In 
1841  he  published  his  first  collection  of  "Essays";  and 
three  years  later  his  second.  From  then  on  at  irregular 
intervals  other  volumes  of  like  content  appeared;  of  these 
the  most  important,  in  all  probability,  are  "  Representative 
Men"  (1850),  "The  Conduct  of  Life"  (1860),  and  "So 
ciety  and  Solitude"  (1870).  There  is  no  need  of  an 
enumeration  of  Emerson's  books,  since  they  are  all  similar 
in  form,  content,  and  purpose.  While  Emerson  is  in  no 
true  sense  a  philosopher,  he  did  project  a  theory  of  life. 
Sincerity  he  regarded  as  fundamental,  and  his  belief  in 
the  formative  influence  of  great  men  was  almost  identical 
with  that  held  by  Carlyle.  By  the  possession  of  "trans 
cendental  reason,"  man,  according  to  Emerson,  becomes 
intuitively  aware  of  the  truth.  This  truth  or  doctrine  has 
been  reduced  by  some  critic  to  three  propositions:  (i)  God 
is  in  all  things  and  all  things  are  in  God.  (2)  Each  created 
existence  is  essential  to  every  other  created  existence. 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    329 

(3)  Nothing  which  has  once  existed  ever  ceases  to  exist. 
To  the  average  reader  these  ideas  are  bewildering  and  have 
been  collectively  designated  as  "a  new  philosophy  main 
taining  that  nothing  is  everything  in  general,  and  everything 
is  nothing  in  particular."  It  is  related  as  a  fact,  that  after 
an  address  by  Emerson  before  a  college  society,  the  minister 
in  charge  of  the  meeting  devoutly  prayed  that  the  hearers 
might  be  preserved  from  ever  again  being  compelled  to 
listen  to  such  transcendental  nonsense.  At  the  close  of 
the  meeting  Emerson  imperturbably  remarked  that  the 
gentleman  seemed  a  very  conscientious,  plain-spoken  man. 
The  distance  between  Emerson's  thought  and  that  of 
most  men  laid  him  open  to  the  charge  of  obscurity,  an 
accusation  which  is  still  widely  repeated  by  those  who  do 
not  trouble  themselves  to  read  or  to  think.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  Emerson  is  often  mystical,  and  that  he  must 
find  spiritual  insight  and  almost  poetic  imagination  in 
those  who  would  penetrate  to  the  heart  of  his  teachings; 
but  it  is  unfair  to  give  the  impression  that,  save  to  the 
initiated,  he  is  nearly  always  incomprehensible.  Page 
after  page  of  his  writings  offers  no  difficulty  whatever  to 
the  most  cursory  reader,  and  his  work  as  a  whole  is  within 
the  ken  of  any  serious  and  unprejudiced  reader.  In  style 
Emerson  is  sometimes  forbidding  through  a  strong  tendency 
to  condensation  of  expression;  but  the  beauty  of  his 
thought  frequently  draws  to  itself  a  diction  and  order 
which  transform  his  prose  into  veritable  poetry.  His 
strong,  earnest  spirituality  is  never  fanatical,  his  perfect 
trust  in  what  he  called  the  Over-Soul  is  never  sentimental, 
his  full  confidence  that  the  world  is  making  for  ultimate 
good  is  never  unpractical.  Looking  upon  the  universe  as 
"one  vast  symbol  of  God,"  he  escaped  pantheism  on  one 
hand  and  materialism  on  the  other.  As  a  teacher  utter 
ing  his  uplifting  thought  through  literature,  Emerson,  it 
may  be  confidently  said,  stands  without  a  rival  among 
American  writers. 


33°  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Henry  David  Thoreau. — Henry  David  Thoreau  (1817- 
1862)  is  by  many  readers  coupled  with  Emerson.  Born  in 
Concord,  Massachusetts,  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
in  his  native  town  and  its  vicinity.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1837,  although  he  refused  his  diploma 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  worth  five  dollars.  He  gave 
occasional  lectures  and  wrote  many  books:  of  these  he 
himself  published  but  two,  "  A  Week  on  the  Concord  and 
Merrimac  Rivers"  (1849)  and  "Walden,  or  Life  in  the 
Woods"  (1854).  To  these  have  been  added  from  time  to 
time  since  Thoreau's  death  several  volumes  entitled  "  Excur 
sions  in  Field  and  Forest"  (1863),  "The  Maine  Woods" 
(1864),  "Cape  Cod"  (1865),  and  "A  Yankee  in  Canada" 
(1866).  The  greater  part  of  his  voluminous  journal  was 
published  in  1906  and  1907,  though  extensive  selections 
had  been  previously  printed  in  four  volumes  bearing  re 
spectively  the  names  of  the  four  seasons  of  the  year. 
More  than  any  other  well-known  American  author, 
Thoreau  strove  to  get  at  Nature's  inmost  heart.  With 
drawing  to  Walden  Pond,  he  spent  the  larger  part  of  his 
time  for  two  years  in  reading  and  meditation ;  feeling  then 
that  his  object  had  been  accomplished,  he  returned  to 
town  life.  For  a  brief  period,  Thoreau  lived  as  an  inmate 
of  Emerson's  household  and  became  an  unconscious  disciple 
of  the  man  who  entertained  him.  A  transcendentalist 
imbued  with  a  strong  spirit  of  otherworldliness,  he  may 
perhaps  be  best  summed  up  in  Emerson's  words.  "  He  was 
bred  to  no  profession ;  he  never  married ;  he  lived  alone ;  he 
never  went  to  church;  he  never  voted;  he  refused  to  pay 
a  tax  to  the  state;  he  ate  no  flesh;  he  drank  no  wine;  he 
never  knew  the  use  of  tobacco;  and  though  a  naturalist 
he  used  neither  rod  nor  gun."  Thomas  Wentworth  Hig- 
ginson  has  pointed  out  that  Thoreau's  fame  has  survived 
two  of  the  greatest  dangers  that  can  beset  reputation — 
a  brilliant  satirist  for  critic  (Lowell),  and  an  injudicious 
friend  for  biographer  (Channing). 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    331 

Minor  Transcendentalists. — Minor  transcendentalists,  and 
connected  therefore  with  Emerson  and  Thoreau,  were  Amos 
Bronson  Alcott  (1799-1888),  and  Sarah  Margaret  Fuller 
(1810-1850).  Both,  like  Emerson,  were  contributors  to  The 
Dial  but  unlike  him  did  not  hold  aloof  from  the  Brook 
Farm  experiment.  Alcott 's  chief  works  were  "Tablets" 
(1868),  "Concord  Days"  (1872),  and  "Table  Talk"  (1877); 
Margaret  Fuller's,  "A  Summer  on  the  Lakes"  (1843), 
"Woman  in  the  Nineteenth  Century"  (1844),  and  "Papers 
on  Literature  and  Art"  (1846).  Other  essayists  who  may 
be  mentioned  as  identifying  themselves  with  the  Brook 
Farm  movement  or  with  the  Transcendental  Club  out  of 
which  it  grew,  were  three  noted  clergymen,  William  Ellery 
Channing  (1780-1842),  the  founder  of  the  club;  Theodore 
Parker  (1810-1860),  the  pulpit  representative  of  its  theories, 
and  James  Freeman  Clarke  (1810-1888),  a  frequent  contri 
butor  to  its  organ,  The  Dial.  In  later  years  each  of  these 
men  published  works  which  are  still  occasionally  read. 
Channing's  numerous  writings  were  brought  together  in  five 
volumes  in  1841,  and,  under  the  title  "The  Perfect  Life," 
a  selection  from  them  was  made  in  1872.  He  must  not 
be  confused  with  a  younger  William  Ellery  Channing 
(1818-1901),  his  brother's  son,  the  author  of  a  monograph 
on  "Thoreau,  the  Poet  Naturalist"  (1873)  and  of  "Con 
versations  from  Rome  "  (1902).  Parker's  chief  works  aside 
from  his  sermons  were  "Miscellaneous  Writings"  (1843) 
and  "Historic  Americans"  (1870);  Clarke's,  "Orthodoxy, 
its  Truths  and  Errors"  (1866)  and  "Ten  Great  Religions" 
(1871). 

The  Transcendental  Movement  appealed  to  all  sorts 
and  conditions  of  men:  philosophers  exchanged  ideas  with 
journalists,  and  ministers  with  writers  of  fiction.  Of  the 
members  who  later  became  known  as  editors  the  most 
important  were  George  Ripley  (1802-1880),  Charles  Ander 
son  Dana  (1819-1897),  and  George  William  Curtis  (1824- 
1892),  all  of  whom  at  some  time  or  other  were  upon  the 


33  2  The  Nineteenth  Century 

staff  of  The  New  York  Tribune.  Ripley  and  Dana  were 
joint  editors  of  "The  American  Encyclopedia"  (1857-1863) ; 
but  they  also  worked  independently,  the  former  putting 
together  fourteen  volumes  entitled  "Specimens  of  Foreign 
Standard  Literature"  (1838-1842),  the  latter  making  that 
still  famous  collection  "The  Household  Book  of  Poetry 
and  Song"  (1857).  Curtis'  interests  were  so  many  and 
so  various  that  he  has  been  classified  as  journalist,  orator, 
publicist,  and  author.  His  most  important  works  were 
"Lotus  Eating"  (1852),  "Potiphar  Papers"  (1853),  and 
"Essays  from  the  Easy  Chair"  (1891),  the  last  a  collection 
of  brief  papers  originally  contributed  to  Harper's  Magazine. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. — Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  (1809- 
1894)  stands  in  some  contrast  to  the  chief  writers  of  the 
Transcendental  School.  On  the  whole  they  were  marked 
by  deliberate  seriousness,  but  he  possessed  a  clear,  crisp 
spontaneity  which  often  broke  forth  into  sparkling  fun. 
Born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  a  member  of  what  he 
facetiously  styled  "The  Brahmin  Caste"  of  New  England, 
he  counted  among  his  ancestors  more  than  one  English 
governor  of  the  Colonial  period  and  that  famous  woman 
of  her  time,  Anne  Bradstreet,  "the  Tenth  Muse."  After 
being  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1829,  he  studied 
law  for  a  year  and  then  turned  to  medicine.  Completing 
his  education  in  Paris,  Holmes  returned  to  America  in 
1835  to  enter  upon  the  practice  of  his  profession,  but  in 
1839  accepted  a  professorship  of  anatomy  at  Dartmouth 
College,  in  New  Hampshire.  The  following  year  he  entered 
upon  a  similar  position  in  the  Harvard  Medical  School,  and 
remained  there  until  1882.  In  1886,  Holmes  visited  Europe 
and  received  honorary  degrees  from  Edinburgh,  Oxford, 
and  Cambridge.  The  eight  remaining  years  of  his  life  he 
spent  quietly  at  his  home  in  Boston,  graciously  receiving 
even  strangers,  who  felt  that  they  had  not  really  seen  that 
city  unless  they  had  shaken  Dr.  Holmes  by  the  hand. 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    333 

Of  Holmes'  prose  work  his  "Breakfast  Table"  series 
best  defends  his  right  to  claim  a  permanent  place  of  fame. 
"The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,"  after  appearing 
serially  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  The  Atlantic 
Monthly  (1857-1858),  was  immediately  republished  in  book 
form,  and  was  succeeded  by  "The  Professor  at  the  Break 
fast  Table"  (1859),  "The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table" 
(1872),  and  "Over  the  Tea-Cups"  (1891).  These  works, 
which  have  been  rather  aptly  characterised  as  "a  cross 
between  an  essay  and  a  drama,"  contain  comments  on  al 
most  everything  in  the*  heavens  above,  the  earth  beneath, 
and  the  waters  under  the  earth.  The  books  are  at  times 
delightfully  whimsical  and  scintillatingly  witty,  at  others 
deeply  serious  and  minutely  analytic,  and  at  still  others 
tenderly  generous  and  movingly  pathetic.  Holmes'  other 
important  works  in  prose  are  two  volumes  of  biography, 
a  "Memoir  of  John  Lothrop  Motley"  (1879)  and  a  "Life 
of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson"  (1884);  one  book  of  essays, 
"Pages  from  an  Odd  Volume  of  Life"  (1883);  and  one 
diary  of  travel,  "Our  Hundred  Days  in  Europe"  (1887). 

Willis,  Mitchell,  and  Warner. — Nathaniel  Parker  Willis 
(1806-1867),  Donald  Grant  Mitchell  (born  in  1822),  and 
Charles  Dudley  Warner  (1829-1900)  are  suggested  by  the 
mention  of  Holmes,  for  they,  like  him,  were  writers  of  the 
"genial"  essay.  Willis  was  born  in  Portland,  Maine,  and 
was  graduated  from  Yale  at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  Enter 
ing  upon  a  journalistic  career  in  1828,  he  spent  a  con 
siderable  number  of  years  abroad,  whence  he  sent  home 
for  the  periodicals  of  his  day  frequent  accounts  of  his 
foreign  travel  and  experiences.  His  complete  works  have 
been  collected  into  thirteen  volumes,  but  the  best  of  his 
writing  may  be  found  in  two  books  published  during  his 
lifetime,  " Pencillings  by  the  Way"  (1835)  and  "Letters 
from  Under  a  Bridge"  (1840).  Willis  wrote  with  most 
painstaking  care.  It  has  been  left  upon  record  by  James 


334  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Parton  that  Willis  "  bestowed  upon  everything  he  did  the 
most  careful  labour,  making  endless  erasures  and  emenda 
tions.  On  an  average  he  blotted  one  line  out  of  every 
three  that  he  wrote,  and  on  one  page  of  his  editorial 
writing  there  were  but  three  lines  left  unaltered."  It  may 
be  added,  in  passing,  that  Willis'  father  in  1827  founded 
the  well  known  and  widely  read  Youth's  Companion. 
Mitchell,  for  many  years  better  known  as  "Ik  Marvel," 
was,  like  Willis,  a  New  Englander  by  birth  and  a  gradu 
ate  of  Yale  College.  He,  also,  spent  a  few  years  abroad, 
acting,  in  fact,  as  United  States  Consul  at  Venice  in  1853— 
1855.  His  works  were  many,  but  he  is  best  known  as  the 
author  of  "Reveries  of  a  Bachelor"  (1850)  and  "Dream 
Life"  (1851).  Warner  was  in  many  respects  the  strongest 
writer  of  this  group.  A  New  Englander  by  birth,  he  was 
graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  then 
studied  law  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  finally 
began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Chicago.  In  1860 
he  was  called  to  Hartford,  Connecticut,  as  editor  of  a  daily 
paper,  and  from  then  on  gave  himself  up  to  journalism  and 
other  literary  interests.  His  works  were  many  and  varied ; 
the  most  important  are  "  My  Summer  in  a  Garden"  (1870), 
"Backlog  Studies"  (1872),  "My  Winter  on  the  Nile" 
(1876),  and  a  "Life  of  Washington  Irving"  (1881). 

Some  Travellers. — Bayard  Taylor's  experiences  abroad 
found  their  expression  in  a  number  of  books;  but,  read 
able  as  they  all  are,  the  first,  "Views  Afoot"  (1846),  is 
the  best.  It  is  a  work  to  be  compared  with  Irving's 
"Sketch  Book"  and  Longfellow's  "Outre  Mer";  it  may 
not  be  far  wrong  to  assign  it  to  a  place  between  the  two, 
inferior  to  the  first,  superior  to  the  second.  From  Taylor's 
numerous  works  in  other  departments  of  pure  literature, 
"Studies  in  German  Literature"  (1879)  and  "Essays  and 
Notes"  (1880)  may  be  chosen  for  mention. 

At  the  risk  of  departing  somewhat  from  chronological 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists     335 

order,  one  may  mention  at  this  point  a  few  authors  who, 
like  Taylor,  left  records  of  their  travels  and  adventures. 
The  earliest  of  these,  an  older  man  in  fact  than  Taylor, 
was  Elisha  Kent  Kane  (1820-1857),  the  Arctic  explorer, 
who  related  in  "  The  Grinnell  Expeditions  "  (1854-1856) ,  the 
story  of  the  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  find  Sir  John 
Franklin.  Much  nearer  to  our  time  were  Henry  M.  Stanley 
(1841-1890)  and  George  Kennan  (born  in  1845).  Stanley 
was  born  in  Wales,  it  is  true,  and  was  knighted  by  Queen 
Victoria  in  1890;  but  his  explorations  in  Africa  were  made 
while  he  was  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  His  best- 
known  work  is  his  first,  "  How  I  Found  Livingston"  (1872). 
Kennan  experienced  adventures  in  still  another  part  of 
the  world.  Sent  to  Siberia  by  the  American  Telegraph 
Association  to  superintend  the  construction  of  lines,  he 
published,  in  1870,  "Tent  Life  in  Siberia."  Several  years 
later  he  returned  to  the  same  country  as  correspondent 
of  The  Century  Magazine  to  investigate  social  and  political 
conditions  there.  He  published  the  results  of  his  observa 
tions  in  "Siberia  and  the  Exile  System"  (1891). 

Holland,  Lowell,  and  Others. — The  essay  of  travel,  it 
will  have  to  be  admitted,  has  carried  us  pretty  well  out  of 
the  realm  of  pure  literature  and  brought  us  down  to  very 
recent  times.  If  we  have  seemed  to  ignore  certain  writers, 
some  less  and  some  greater,  it  was  but  to  return  to  them 
for  fuller  mention .  Josiah  Gilbert  Holland  (1819-1881)  was 
born  in  Belchertown,  Massachusetts,  and  while  still  a  young 
man  became  associate  editor  of  The  Springfield  Republican. 
In  1870  he  assisted  in  the  foundation  of  Scribner's  Monthly 
and  became  its  editor-in-chief.  He  tried  his  hand  at  va 
rious  forms  of  literature  and  at  one  time  was  not  far  from 
being  the  most  popular  writer  in  the  United  States.  To 
this  day  there  is  hardly  an  American  household  unprovided 
with  a  copy  of  one  of  the  early  editions  of  "Timothy  Tit- 
comb's  Letters"  (1858),  "Gold  Foil"  (1859),  or  "Plain 


336  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Talks  on  Familiar  Subjects"  (1865).  James  Russell  Lowell 
(1819-1891)  contributed  many  articles  to  The  Atlantic  and 
The  North  American  Review;  some  of  this  work  has  not 
yet  been  collected,  but  the  best  of  it  may  be  found  scat 
tered  through  the  seven  volumes  of  his  complete  prose 
works  (1890-1891).  During  his  lifetime  Lowell  published 
several  collections  of  essays;  the  most  valuable  are  "Fire 
side  Travels"  (1864),  "Among  my  Books"  (1870),  and 
"My  Study  Windows"  (1871).  As  one  looks  over  their 
contents,  one  is  surprised  at  the  versatility  of  their  writer. 
The  essay  of  reminiscence,  "A  Moosehead  Journal"  or 
"Cambridge  Thirty  Years  Ago,"  balances  the  essay  of 
travel,  "At  Sea"  or  "A  Few  Bits  of  Roman  Mosaic";  the 
historical  essay,  "New  England  Two  Centuries  Ago,"  is 
matched  by  the  nature  study,  "My  Garden  Acquaint 
ance";  the  purely  literary  sketch,  "Shakespeare  Once 
More,"  stands  beside  the  book  review  "Witchcraft" 
or  "A  Great  Public  Character";  and  the  political  speech, 
"Democracy"  or  "Tariff  Reform,"  adds  a  certain  virility 
to  the  notes  of  a  response  to  the  toast  "Our  Literature" 
or  to  the  address  on  "Books  and  Reading"  delivered  at 
the  opening  of  a  free  public  library.  Lowell  is  ironical  in 
"On  a  Certain  Condescension  in  Foreigners,"  witty  in  "A 
Good  Word  for  Winter,"  genial  in  "A  Library  of  Old 
Authors,"  sympathetic  in  "Emerson  the  Lecturer,"  just  in 
"Thoreau,"  firm  in  "Reconstruction"  and  "Abraham  Lin 
coln,"  thoughtful  in  "The  Rebellion:  Its  Causes  and  Con 
sequences,"  and  scholarly  in  "Chaucer"  and  "Dante." 
Aristocratic  in  the  best  sense  of  that  much  abused  term, 
cultured  in  manner,  robust  and  vigorous  in  thought,  clean 
and  fresh  in  mind,  Lowell  still  stands  forth  as  America's 
finest  representative  man  of  letters. 

The  greatness  of  Lowell  has  by  no  means  dimmed 
the  renown  of  certain  of  his  lesser  contemporaries.  Edward 
Everett  Hale  (born  in  1822),  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson 
(born  in  1823),  and  Charles  Eliot  Norton  (1827-1908) 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    337 

deserve  at  least  passing  mention,  although  the  first  two 
are  better  known  for  contributions  to  magazines  than  for 
books,  and  the  last  has  gained  attention  mainly  through 
his  biographical  work  and  his  translation  of  Dante.  Owing 
to  the  popularity  of  a  story,  "  The  Man  Without  a  Country,*' 
Dr.  Hale  has  unfortunately  become  known  as  an  author 
of  one  book,  but  his  "  Puritan  Politics  in  England  and 
New  England"  (1869)  is  valuable,  and  his  "Franklin  in 
France"  (1887),  written  with  the  assistance  of  his  son,  is  in 
teresting  and  trustworthy.  Mr.  Higginson  has  tried  his  hand 
at  biography,  historical  memoranda,  criticism,  and  fiction: 
probably  his  best  work  is  found  in  "Outdoor  Papers" 
(1863),  "Atlantic  Essays"  (1871),  and  "The  New  World 
and  the  New  Book"  (1891).  Of  the  three  authors  here 
mentioned,  Dr.  Norton  is  the  most  important;  he  is  more 
than  a  writer;  he  is  in  addition  a  scholar.  Knowing  in 
timately  all  of  the  foremost  writers  of  this  country,  he  was 
hardly  less  well  acquainted  with  the  most  important  Eng 
lish  authors  of  the  middle  and  later  Victorian  period.  In 
addition  to  his  monumental  prose  translation  of  Dante's 
"New  Life"  (1858)  and  "Divine  Comedy"  (1892),  he  has 
edited  such  books  as  "The  Early  Letters  of  Thomas  Car- 
lyle"  (1886),  "The  Letters  of  James  Russell  Lowell" 
(1893),  and  "The  Letters  of  John  Ruskin"  (1904).  His  chief 
original  works  are  "Notes  of  Travel  and  Study  in  Italy" 
(1859)  and  "Historical  Studies  of  Church-Building  in  the 
Middle  Ages"  (1880).  The  scholarship  of  Dr.  Norton 
immediately  suggests  that  of  other  men.  George  Ticknor 
(1791-1887)  by  the  date  of  his  birth  seems  to  belong  to  a 
period  slightly  earlier  than  that  of  Norton;  in  fact  he 
immediately  preceded  Longfellow  as  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Harvard.  His  chief  work  was  "A  History  of 
Spanish  Literature"  (1849).  As  a  valuable  piece  of 
criticism,  it  has  not  been  superseded,  and  even  in  Spain  is 
accepted  as  authoritative.  Somewhat  later  than  Ticknor 
in  point  of  time  was  Francis  James  Child  (1825-1896). 


338  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Educated  at  Harvard  College,  he  was  a  professor  there  for 
nearly  half  a  century.  Devoting  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  ballad  as  a  literary  form,  he  published  the  results  of  his 
work  in  eight  volumes  under  the  title  ' '  English  and  Scottish 
Popular  Ballads"  (1857-1859).  Closely  connected  with 
these  several  authors  was  James  Thomas  Fields  (1817-1881). 
Founder  of  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  member  of  a  famous 
publishing  house,  he  was  acquainted  more  or  less  intimately 
with  every  important  American  writer  of  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  not  without  literary  skill 
himself,  publishing  among  other  works  "Yesterdays  with 
Authors"  (1872)  and  "Underbrush"  (1881).  His  wife, 
Annie  Adams  Fields  (born  in  1834),  has  written  a  number 
of  books  in  a  similar  vein :  the  most  valuable,  perhaps,  are 
"A  Shelf  of  Old  Books"  and  "Authors  and  Friends," 
both  published  in  1896. 

Shakespearean  Scholars. — Harking  back  to  Norton  and 
Ticknor  as  representative  American  students  of  foreign 
literatures,  one  naturally  takes  pleasure  in  seeing  that  the 
field  of  Shakespearean  scholarship  has  been  by  no  means 
neglected  in  this  country.  Henry  Norman  Hudson 
(1814-1886)  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  American 
to  turn  a  furrow ;  for,  after  publishing  ' '  Lectures  on  Shake 
speare"  (1848),  he  devoted  himself  to  a  critical  study  of 
the  plays  and  finally  produced  a  work  still  mentioned 
with  respect,  "Shakespeare:  His  Life,  Art,  and  Characters" 
(1872).  Meanwhile  Richard  Grant  White  (1822-1885)  had 
published  "The  Authorship  of  the  Three  Parts  of  Henry 
VI."  (1859)  and  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Shakespeare" 
(1865).  Interested  in  other  subjects  for  a  time,  he  wrote 
"Words  and  Their  Uses"  (1870)  and  "England  Without 
and  Within"  (1881);  then,  returning  to  his  early  interests, 
he  produced  "Studies  in  Shakespeare"  (1885).  Perhaps 
Edwin  Percy  Whipple  (1819-1886)  deserves  mention  at  this 
place,  for  after  writing  "Essays  and  Reviews"  (1849),  and 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    339 

" Character  and  Characteristic  Men"  (1866),  he  published 
"The  Literature  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth"  (1869).  Nor  is  it 
possible  to  overlook  Thomas  Raynesford  Lounsbury  (born 
in  1838),  who  added  to  his  extensive  ''Studies  in  Chaucer" 
(1892)  a  trilogy  of  studies  entitled  "Shakespeare  as  a 
Dramatic  Artist"  (1901),  "Shakespeare  and  Voltaire" 
(1902),  and  "The  Text  of  Shakespeare"  (1906).  But 
easily  the  foremost  Shakespearean  scholar  in  America  is 
Horace  Howard  Furness  (born  in  1833),  whose  "Variorum 
Shakespeare"  as  a  painstaking  and  authoritative  work 
stands  unsurpassed  in  any  language.  Recently  Mr.  Furness 
has  associated  his  son  with  him  in  his  investigations,  and 
we  may  therefore  expect  with  some  confidence  that  a 
study  of  Shakespeare  on  the  largest  scale  up  to  this  time 
attempted  may  be  completed  according  to  the  traditions 
with  which  it  was  begun. 

Literary  Historians. — Widely  interested  as  the  scholars 
of  this  country  have  been  in  the  greater  writers  and  the 
more  important  literature  of  other  lands,  there  has  been 
no  dearth  of  attention  to  our  own.  Moses  Coit  Tyler 
(1835-1900),  sometime  professor  of  American  history  at 
Cornell  University,  was  the  author  of  two  valuable  works, 
"History  of  American  Literature  during  the  Colonial 
Times"  (1878)  and  "Literary  History  of  the  American 
Revolution"  (1897).  Charles  Francis  Richardson  (born 
in  1851),  professor  of  English  in  Dartmouth  College,  has 
covered  the  whole  range  of  our  literary  history  down  to 
1885  in  his  "American  Literature"  (1887);  and  Barrett 
Wendell  (born  in  1855)  of  Harvard  University,  in  his 
"Literary  History  of  America"  (1901),  has  brought  his 
treatment  of  the  same  topic  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  Professor  Wendell  has  written  upon  other 
American  topics  in  "Stelligeri"  (1893),  an<^  "A  Life  of 
Cotton  Mather"  (1891).  More  recently  he  has  published 
two  works,  both  the  result  of  his  residence  abroad  as  a 


340  The  Nineteenth  Century 

lecturing  professor:  the  substance  of  the  first,  "The  Temper 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century  in  English  Literature"  (1904), 
was  delivered  before  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  that  of 
the  second,  "The  France  of  To-Day"  (1907)  was  gathered 
while  he  was  giving  a  course  of  lectures  in  Paris. 

Members  of  other  American  college  faculties  have 
given  evidence  of  minute  research  and  strong  inspiration 
in  books  not  a  few.  James  Brander  Matthews  (born  in 
1852)  of  Columbia  University,  and  George  Edward  Wood- 
berry  (born  in  1855),  for  many  years  connected  with  the 
same  university,  have  both  written  books  that  have  gained 
popular  approval;  of  the  former,  "French  Dramatists  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century"  (1881)  and  "The  Historical 
Novel"  (1901)  certainly  deserve  mention;  of  the  latter, 
"The  Life  of  Poe"  (1885)  and  "The  Appreciation  of 
Literature"  (1907).  No  less  significant  than  these  men 
are  Felix  Emmanuel  Schelling  (born  in  1858)  of  the  Uni 
versity  of  Pennsylvania,  whose  latest  work  is  "The  Eliza 
bethan  Drama"  (1908),  and  Vida  Dutton  Scudder  (born  in 
1861)  of  Wellesley  College,  who  cannot  be  left  unnoticed,  so 
thorough  and  satisfactory  are  her  "Life  of  the  Spirit  in 
the  Modern  English  Poets"  (1895)  and  "Social  Ideals  in 
English  Letters"  (1898).  Woodrow  Wilson,  president  of 
Princeton  University,  has  spared  time  from  his  political 
and  historical  studies  to  write  an  interesting  volume  of 
essays  called  "Mere  Literature"  (1896);  President  Wilson's 
former  colleague,  Bliss  Perry  (born  in  1860),  now  editor 
of  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  professor  of  belles-lettres  at 
Harvard,  has  published  a  valuable  "Study  of  Prose  Fiction  " 
(1902),  and  another  Princeton  professor,  Henry  Jackson 
Van  Dyke  (born  in  1852),  has  written  an  especially  useful 
study  called  "The  Poetry  of  Tennyson"  (1889),  and  has  also 
shown  himself  a  master  of  the  leisurely  essay  in  "Little 
Rivers"  (1895)  and  "Fisherman's  Luck"  (1899). 

The  Nature  Writers. — Professor  Van  Dyke's   "outdoor 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    341 

essays,"  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  carry  us  back  to 
the  earlier  nature  writers,  for  between  him  and  Thoreau 
there  is  no  wide  hiatus.  John  Burroughs  (born  in  1837) 
has  written  a  considerable  number  of  books  dealing  with 
his  observations  out  of  doors,  although  he  has  by  no  means 
neglected  the  purely  literary  topic.  The  mention  of  his 
earlier  works  gives  an  adequate  index  of  all  his  subject- 
matter.  "Wake- Robin"  appeared  in  1870,  "Birds  and 
Poets"  in  1875,  and  "Whitman,  a  Study"  in  1896.  To 
be  closely  associated  with  Mr.  Burroughs  is  Bradford  Torrey 
(born  in  1843);  his  chief  works  are  "Birds  in  the  Bush" 
(1885),  "The  Footpath  Way"  (1892),  and  "A  World  of 
Green  Hills"  (1898).  Nor  can  Olive  Thome  Miller  (born 
in  1831)  be  overlooked:  she  began  to  write  studies  of 
birds  about  1880,  and  among  other  works,  all  of  considerable 
interest,  she  has  published  "In  Nesting  Time"  (1888), 
"A  Bird-Lover  in  the  West"  (1894),  and  "Under  the  Tree- 
Tops"  (1897).  The  writers  just  mentioned  are  not  to  be 
regarded,  of  course,  as  scientists  or  even  as  scientific  writers 
in  the  commonly  accepted  sense  of  those  terms.  They 
look  upon  nature  with  the  loving  rather  than  the  analytic 
eye,  and  register  their  appreciative  feelings  rather  than 
their  minute  observations.  They  have  much  in  common, 
therefore,  with  the  purely  literary  essayists  whose  names 
are  not  far  from  legion.  Although  unable  to  mention  all 
who  have  recently  attracted  attention,  we  must  not  forget 
William  Winter  (born  in  1836),  whose  best  prose  works  date 
back  but  a  quarter  of  a  century:  he  published  "Shake 
speare's  England"  in  1888,  "  Gray  Days  and  Gold"  in  1891, 
and  " The  Life  and  Art  of  Edwin  Booth"  in  1894.  Neither 
can  we  ignore  Hamilton  Wright  Mabie  (born  in  1845), 
literary  editor  of  The  Outlook.  His  books  are  many  and 
widely  popular :  probably  the  series  of  three  volumes  called 
"My  Study  Fire"  (1890,  1894,  and  1899)  and  "Shake 
speare:  Poet,  Dramatist,  and  Man"  (1900)  are  best  known. 
Not  less  significant  is  Paul  Elmer  More  (born  in  1864)  of 


342  The  Nineteenth  Century 

the  editorial  staff  of  The  Nation.  In  addition  to  transla 
tions  from  Sanskrit  and  from  Greek,  he  has  published  five 
books  all  bearing  the  title  "  Shelburne  Essays"  (1904-1908). 

Other  Essayists. — Finally,  so  far  as  essayists  are  con 
cerned,  some  rapid  review  must  be  made  of  the  novelists 
and  the  later  poets  who  have  not  restricted  themselves  to 
the  fields  of  their  chief  labour.  This  takes  us  back  as  far 
as  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (1804-1864),  whose  "Our  Old 
Home"  (1863)  is  a  collection  of  valuable  essays  on  various 
English  topics.  The  saying  "Like  father,  like  son"  was 
exemplified  when  Julian  Hawthorne  (born  in  1846)  brought 
out  "Saxon  Studies"  (1876),  a  book  of  like  purport  with 
his  father's.  The  mention  of  more  than  one  writer  in  a 
family  suggests  the  elder  Henry  James  (1811-1882)  and  his 
two  sons,  William  and  Henry.  The  father  is  best  remem 
bered  as  a  theological  and  philosophical  writer  through 
his  "Moralism  and  Christianity"  (1852)  and  "Lectures 
and  Miscellanies"  (1852).  The  elder  son,  William  James 
(born  in  1842),  for  many  years  professor  of  psychology  in 
Harvard  University,  besides  being  the  author  of  several 
technical  works  in  the  science  to  which  he  is  devoted, 
has  written  "The  Will  to  Believe,  and  Other  Essays 
(1897),  "Is  Life  Worth  Living?"  (1898),  and  "Pragma 
tism"  (1906).  The  younger  Henry  James  (born  in  1843), 
in  addition  to  being  a  novelist,  is  also  the  author  of  "  A 
Little  Tour  in  France"  (1884),  "Partial  Portraits"  (1888), 
and  "  Essays  in  London  and  Elsewhere  "  (1893).  For  some 
reason  not  strongly  apparent,  William  Dean  Howells  (born 
in  1837)  is  almost  always  associated  in  the  minds  of 
readers  with  Henry  James  the  novelist.  Editor  for  a  time 
of  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  and  later  connected  first  with  the 
staff  of  Harper's  Magazine,  and  afterwards  with  that  of 
The  Cosmopolitan,  he  has  made  many  books  of  essays.  The 
best  are  "  Venetian  Life "  (1866),  "  Italian  Journeys"  (1867), 
and  "Criticism  and  Fiction"  (1895).  Belonging  by  birth 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    343 

to  a  later  decade,  Francis  Marion  Crawford  (born  in  1854) 
is  near  to  being  America's  most  prolific  writer.  His  most 
important  work,  outside  the  domain  of  the  novel,  is  a  small 
volume  connected  in  content  with  the  art  which  he  chiefly 
affects,  "The  Novel,  What  It  Is"  (1903).  It  attracted 
much  attention  upon  its  appearance,  and  is  still  often 
quoted.  Mr.  Crawford  is  also  the  author  of  "  The  Rulers  of 
the  South"  (1900)  and  "  Gleanings  from  Venetian  History" 
(1905).  The  woman  novelists  cannot  be  ignored  as  writers 
of  essays,  for  not  only  do  they  possess  powers  of  penetration 
and  insight,  but  two  of  them,  at  least,  have  swayed  public 
opinion  to  no  inappreciable  extent.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 
(1811-1896)  in  addition  to  her  many  books  of  fiction  wrote 
a  very  much  discussed  study  entitled  "  Lady  Byron  Vin 
dicated"  (1870)  and  "The  American  Woman's  Home" 
(1869),  at  one  time  thought  to  be  the  final  word  upon 
domestic  questions.  A  writer  of  hardly  less  importance 
was  Helen  Hunt  Jackson  (1831—1885),  still  popularly  known 
by  her  pseudonym  of  "H.  H."  Her  most  valuable  study 
was  "A  Century  of  Dishonour"  (1881),  in  which  she  laid 
bare  the  ill-treatment  accorded  the  American  Indians;  she 
succeeded  through  its  pages  in  doing  much  to  ameliorate 
their  unfortunate  condition.  Mrs.  Jackson's  "  Bits  of 
Travel"  (1873)  and  "Between  Whiles"  (1887)  are  in 
teresting  and  readable. 

The  more  important  later  poets  who  have  contributed 
to  essay  literature  are  led  by  that  erratic  but  remarkable 
genius,  Walt  Whitman  (1819-1892).  His  collected  "Prose 
Works,"  published  in  the  year  of  his  death,  contain  much 
more  true  common  sense  than  his  writings  are  popularly 
assumed  to  show.  The  main  titles  included  in  the  con 
tents  are  those  of  small  volumes  printed  at  various  inter 
vals:  "Specimen  Days"  (1882),  "November  Boughs" 
(1888),  and  "Good-Bye,  My  Fancy"  (1891).  Edmund 
Clarence  Stedman  (1833—1908)  and  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich 
(1836-1907),  who  in  their  poetry  followed  the  traditions 


344  The  Nineteenth  Century 

established  by  Longfellow  and  Lowell,  were  the  authors 
of  not  unimportant  prose  works.  The  former  wrote  three 
valuable  books:  "Victorian  Poets"  (1875),  "Poets  of 
America"  (1885),  and  "The  Nature  and  Elements  of 
Poetry"  (1892);  the  latter  author  produced  two  volumes 
of  travel  and  reminiscence:  "From  Ponkapog  to  Pesth" 
(1883)  and  "An  Old  Town  by  the  Sea"  (1893).  Possibly 
allied  rather  with  Whitman  than  with  the  other  poets  just 
mentioned,  Sidney  Lanier  (1842-1881)  may  justly  stand  at 
the  close  of  our  list  of  American  critical  writers.  He 
subjected  the  methods  of  metrical  composition  to  minute 
scrutiny,  and  published  the  results  of  his  investigations  as 
"  The  Science  of  English  Verse"  (1881).  Turning  then  to  a 
study  of  fiction,  he  wrote  an  important  work  entitled  "  The 
English  Novel  and  Its  Development "  (1885).  Since  Lanier 's 
death,  his  executors  have  brought  together  many  of  his 
lectures  and  papers  under  the  titles  of  "Music  and  Poetry" 
(1898),  and  "Shakspere  and  his  Forerunners"  (1902). 

The  Humourists. — It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  serious  thought 
of  Sidney  Lanier  to  the  ludicrous  perversities  of  Mark 
Twain;  yet  between  these  two  lies  an  extensive  territory 
freely  admitted  by  foreign  critics  to  be  distinctly  and  per 
haps  typically  American.  The  humour  of  this  country  is 
different  from  that  found  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  At 
times,  it  is  true,  it  exhibits  the  sparkling  characteristics  of 
the  Irishman's  wit,  at  others  the  keen  shrewdness  of  the 
Frenchman's  bon-mot;  certainly  it  is  never  less  sprightly 
than  the  work  of  the  English  joker,  nor  less  spontaneous 
than  that  of  the  German  jester.  In  fact  it  may  savour  of 
any  one,  or  of  all  the  qualities  just  mentioned,  and  even 
of  many  others.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is,  composite  as 
a  nation,  we  preserve  in  our  humour  the  best  traits  of  the 
elements  out  of  which  we  are  formed,  and  pretty  gener 
ally  add  to  the  mixture  a  flavour  indigenous  to  the  soil 
upon  which  we  flourish. 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    345 

Humour  of  the  Colonial  Period. — In  the  early  periods 
of  our  history,  conscious  humour  did  not  exist.  The 
colonists  were  too  intent  upon  subduing  the  wilderness 
and  safeguarding  their  religion  to  spend  time  in  making 
fun.  Their  steeple-crowned  hats,  their  staid  garb,  and 
the  severe  simplicity  of  their  speech  and  conduct  may  seem 
ridiculous  to  us  now;  but,  depend  upon  it,  these  were  very 
serious  matters  to  the  Puritans  themselves.  A  sudden 
outbreak  of  frivolity,  whether  it  showed  in  a  departure 
from  the  accepted  dress  or  in  an  unusual  use  of  language, 
would  have  been  looked  upon  as  sufficient  cause  for  an 
immediate  ecclesiastical  investigation  and  solemn  con 
demnation.  Surely  a  community  that  in  all  seriousness 
could  pass  a  law  making  it  a  finable  offence  in  a  man  to 
kiss  his  wife  on  Sunday,  would  have  been  horror-stricken 
at  the  irreverent  flippancy  of  Eli  Perkins  and  of  George 
Ade,  and  would  no  doubt  have  called  down  anathema 
upon  Bill  Nye  and  possibly  even  upon  Carolyn  Wells. 

Humour  of  the  Revolutionary  Period. — Nor  did  circum 
stances  permit  the  rise  of  humour  in  the  Revolutionary 
period.  The  great  joke  of  that  time  was  the  struggle 
between  the  pigmy  and  the  giant,  ending  in  the  discom 
fiture  of  the  latter  to  the  tune  of 

"Yankee  Doodle  came  to  town." 

A  few  grim  remarks  have  come  down  to  us,  it  must  be 
admitted,  remarks  which  amuse  us  now,  but  which  could 
have  been  little  provocative  of  laughter  when  they  were 
uttered.  Certainly  we  have  no  record  of  hilarious  mirth 
filling  the  chamber  when  at  the  signing  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  Franklin  sharply  replied  to  the  remark, 
"  Well,  in  this  matter  I  suppose  we  must  all  hang  together," 
with  the  words,  "Yes,  or  we  shall  all  hang  separately!" 
Life  indeed  was  far  too  serious  in  both  the  earlier  periods 
of  American  history  and  literature  to  be  made  a  source 
of  amusement.  True,  we  have  not  a  little  work,  satiric  in 


346  The  Nineteenth  Century 

tone,  from  such  writers  as  the  patriot,  John  Trumbull 
(1750-1831),  and  the  Tory,  Jonathan  Odell  (1737-1881), 
of  whom  the  first  in  his  "M'Fingal"  (1775-1782)  imitated 
Butler's  "Hudibras,"  and  the  second  in  his  "Word  of 
Congress"  (1779)  and  "The  American  Times"  (1780) 
followed  models  set  up  by  Dryden,  Pope,  and  Churchill. 
Joel  Barlow  (1754—1812),  too,  deserves  passing  mention 
here  for  his  mock-heroic  poem,  "The  Hasty  Pudding" 
(1793);  and  Philip  Freneau  (1752-1832)  must  be  named 
on  account  of  several  briefer  pieces  of  verse  intended,  no 
doubt,  to  be  funny,  but  succeeding  only  in  being  abusive 
and  vituperative  of  British  leaders  and  British  methods. 
On  the  whole,  the  efforts  of  all  these  writers,  so  far  as 
humour  is  concerned,  were  little  better  than  clumsy;  and 
nowadays,  if  we  bother  with  their  works  at  all,  we  laugh 
at  the  authors  rather  than  with  them. 

The  Imitative  School. — Conscious  or  deliberate  Ameri 
can  humour,  then,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  shown  itself 
before  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  When 
it  did  appear,  moreover,  it  was  strongly  imitative  of 
English  models  and  exhibited  itself  not  as  the  most  striking 
trait,  but  as  only  one  of  many  qualities  characterising  an 
author's  style.  Indeed,  barring  the  work  of  a  mere  hand 
ful  of  writers,  we  find  such  American  humour  as  is  likely  to 
live  woven  into  books  which  endure  for  other  reasons  than 
because  they  awaken  laughter.  For  the  earliest  instance 
of  any  importance,  we  may  mention  Washington  Irving, 
a  writer  already  discussed  as  an  essayist.  He  exhibits  in 
various  parts  of  his  work  a  sparkling  effervescence  which, 
if  a  little  more  spontaneous  than  that  found  in  The  Spec 
tator,  is  none  the  less  strongly  suggestive,  like  his  more 
serious  work,  of  Addison  and  Steele,  and  perhaps  also  of 
Goldsmith  and  Swift. 

The  Restrained  School. — Less  noticeably  imitative  of 
foreign  work,  the  whimsicalities  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    347 

of  James  Russell  Lowell,  and  of  Charles  Dudley  Warner 
have  been  deemed  sufficiently  important  to  make  each  the 
subject  of  a  chapter  in  more  than  one  English  work  vainly 
endeavouring  to  analyse  and  classify  that  subtle  something 
which  makes  American  humour  funny.  With  apparent 
gravity  Holmes  could  ask  the  startling  question,  "Why  is 
an  onion  like  a  piano?"  and  in  answer  convulse  his  readers 
with  the  atrocious  pun,  "Because  it  smell  odious!"  His 
characterisation  of  an  afternoon  reception  as  "Giggle, 
gabble,  gobble,  git,"  is  worthy  of  frequent  quotation; 
and  one  passage  in  his  "Music  Grinders"  is  of  perennial 
value.  Wearied  by  the  discordant  tunes  issuing  from  a 
hurdy-gurdy,  the  distracted  poet  at  last  exclaims : 

"But  hark!  the  air  again  is  still 

The  music  all  is  ground, 
And  silence,  like  a  poultice,  comes 
To  heal  the  blows  of  sound." 

The  man  who  has  had  the  experience  here  set  down,  ap 
preciates  both  the  pathos  and  the  humour  of  a  passage 
like  that.  Lowell's  humour  is  akin  to  that  of  Holmes.  It 
breaks  out  in  nearly  every  essay  that  he  wrote,  and  almost 
runs  riot  in  some  of  his  poems.  Speaking  of  the  destruction 
of  a  certain  hill  that  a  city  street  might  be  improved,  he 
remarked  in  "  Cambridge  Thirty  Years  Ago"  (1854) :  "  The 
landscape  was  carried  away  cart-load  by  cart-load,  and, 
dumped  down  on  the  roads,  forms  a  part  of  that  unfathom 
able  pudding  which  has,  I  fear,  drawn  many  a  teamster 
and  pedestrian  to  the  use  of  phrases  not  commonly  found 
in  English  dictionaries."  There  is  much  humour  in  Lowell, 
more  stirring  than  this,  but  the  quotation  exhibits  the 
readiness  with  which  he  would  give  an  unexpected  turn 
to  a  sentence,  or  throw  in  an  unlooked-for  reference  or  ex 
pression,  too  delicate  to  be  shocking,  too  subtle  to  arouse 
loud  laughter,  but  capable  none  the  less  of  sending  a 
ripple  of  amusement  over  the  calmest  gravity.  For  work 


348  The  Nineteenth  Century 

professedly  humorous  throughout,  we  must  turn  to  "A 
Fable  for  Critics"  (1848)  or  to  "The  Biglow  Papers" 
(1848).  Both  contain  much  good  hard  common  sense,  but 
the  humour  instead  of  being  a  mere  accident  of  expression 
is  the  real  reason  for  the  existence  of  the  greater  part  of 
each  work.  More  closely  allied  to  Lowell,  perhaps,  than 
to  either  Irving  or  Holmes,  Warner  produced  no  work 
exclusively  funny.  Still  there  is  hardly  a  page  of  "My 
Summer  in  a  Garden"  (1870)  or  of  "In  the  Wilderness'' 
(1878)  which  does  not  have  at  least  one  laughable  sentence. 
For  this  reason  Warner  defies  quotation :  his  chapters  must 
be  read  in  their  entirety  rather  than  in  chance  snatches. 

The  Professional  Humourists. — Turning  now  from  those 
writers  of  humour  who  have  been  looked  upon  by  some 
critics  as  forming  an  "imitative  school"  and  by  others 
as  constituting  what  they  have  more  happily  termed  a 
"restrained  school,"  we  come  upon  a  widely  extended 
group  of  writers  who  profess  to  have  no  higher  calling 
than  the  awakening  of  mere  laughter.  If  we  call  them 
collectively  the  "professional  school  of  American  humour 
ists,"  we  need  not  feel  ourselves  debarred  from  regarding 
them  as  falling  naturally  into  several  classes,  to  each  of 
which  we  may  give  some  special  name,  such  as  "the  milder 
school,"  "the  women  humourists,"  "the  boisterous  group," 
and  the  like.  We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  no  hard 
and  fast  dividing  lines  can  be  drawn  between  the  different 
classes,  since  the  fact  that  a  writer  is  a  woman  does  not 
necessarily  prevent  her  writing  boisterous  humour,  or 
that  a  man  who  is  generally  almost  clown-like  may  not 
sometimes  produce  a  rare  and  refined  piece  of  fun.  Further 
more,  it  happens  that  the  very  naturalness  with  which  the 
humourists  fall  into  groups  and  classes  prevents  their  being 
discussed  in  chronological  order.  The  milder  fun-makers 
have  existed  side  by  side  with  their  hilarious  brethren 
from  the  beginning,  so  that  one  must  ignore,  except  in  the 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    349 

slightest  way,  the  order  determined  mainly  by  accidents 
of  birth,  or  dates  of  publication. 

The  Women  Humourists. — Politeness  demands  that  we 
speak  of  the  women  humourists  first:  in  the  fore-front  of 
these  we  must  place  Mrs.  Frances  Miriam  Whitcher  (1811- 
1852).  She  made  her  first  appearance  as  a  writer  in  Neal's 
Saturday  Gazette  about  1845,  and  to  that  paper  contributed 
a  long  series  of  articles  purporting  to  come  from  the  pen  of 
"the  Widow  Bedott."  From  the  first  she  attracted  atten 
tion,  and  interest  in  her  work  has  never  wholly  ceased. 
Such  was  the  demand  for  her  writings  that  after  her  death 
two  collections  of  articles  from  her  pen  were  made  and 
published  as  "The  Widow  Bedott  Papers"  (1855),  and 
"Widow  Sprigg,  Mary  Elmer,  and  Other  Sketches"  (1867). 

Closely  related  in  form  and  content  to  "The  Widow 
Bedott  Papers"  was  a  book  published  in  1873  with  the 
title  "My  Opinions  and  Betsy  Bobbet's."  Although  im 
mediately  popular,  it  was  for  many  years  supposed  to  be 
the  work  of  its  professed  author,  Samanthy  Allen;  but  by 
the  time  "P.  A.  and  P.  I.  or  Samanthy  at  the  Centen 
nial"  appeared,  in  1876,  the  secret  had  leaked  out  that 
"Josiah  Allen's  Wife"  was  the  pseudonym  of  Marietta 
Holley  (born  in  1844),  a  native  of  Adams,  New  York. 
A  contributor  to  Peterson's  Magazine,  The  Christian 
Union,  The  Independent,  and  other  periodicals,  and  the 
author  of  numerous  books,  she  has  gained  considerable 
renown.  Her  earlier  works  are  her  best ;  for  as  time  went 
on  she  diluted  her  skill  in  fun-making  by  permitting  her 
interest  in  the  temperance  question,  the  woman-suffrage 
movement,  and  negro  education  to  interfere  with  the 
power  of  her  wit.  Miss  Holley's  work  has  attracted  some 
attention  abroad,  and  has  been  translated  into  several 
foreign  languages.  Merely  pausing  to  mention  Mary 
Abigail  Dodge  (1830-1896),  a  native  of  Hamilton,  Massa 
chusetts,  who,  forming  her  pseudonym  from  a  part  of  her 


35°  The  Nineteenth  Century 

own  name  and  from  that  of  her  birthplace,  made  herself 
famous  as  "  Gail  Hamilton  "  in  work  both  grave  and  gay; 
and  stopping  only  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe  in  "Old  Town  Folks"  (1869)  gave  us  an 
unusually  funny  book,  we  may  choose  from  the  host  of 
women  who  are  moving  us  to  laughter  the  most  industrious 
of  them  all,  Carolyn  Wells.  As  a  writer  of  the  verse  form 
called  the  limerick  she  has  more  than  once  equalled  Edward 
Lear,  and  as  a  parodist  she  shocks  a  reader  to  silence  by 
her  audacity. 

The  Milder  Humourists. — In  what  may  be  called  the 
milder  school  of  American  humourists  Seba  Smith  (1792— 
1868)  was  the  leader  in  point  of  time.  Graduated  from 
Bowdoin  College  in  1818,  Smith  began  almost  immediately 
to  contribute  editorially  to  the  papers  of  Portland,  Maine. 
In  addition  to  more  serious  works,  he  wrote,  under  the 
pen-name  of  "Major  Jack  Downing,"  a  series  of  political 
articles  in  New  England  dialect,  thus  anticipating  Lowell's 
"Biglow  Papers"  by  several  years.  Smith  was  the  author 
of  a  number  of  books,  the  best  known  of  which  are  probably 
"Way  Down  East"  (1853)  and  "My  Thirty  Years  Out  of 
the  Senate"  (1859),  the  latter  a  homely  and  vigorous 
parody  of  Senator  T.  H.  Benton's  "Thirty  Years'  View  of 
the  American  Government."  Writing  not  long  after  Seba 
Smith,  John  Godfrey  Saxe  (1816-1887)  early  sprang  into 
fame.  The  author  of  a  considerable  amount  of  prose,  he 
attracted  far  wider  attention  by  his  verse.  In  the  latter 
he  showed  the  working  of  a  strong  English  influence;  in 
deed,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  had  there  been  no 
Thomas  Hood,  there  would  have  been  no  Saxe.  Born  at 
High  gate,  Vermont,  and  graduated  from  Middlebury  Col 
lege  in  1843,  he  soon  became  interested  in  both  journalism 
and  politics;  but  he  is  now  best  remembered  by  his  work 
in  verse.  His  "Humorous  and  Satirical  Poems"  (1850) 
fairly  bristle  with  uns  from  beginning  to  end,  and  the 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    351 

surprising  fact  about  them  is  that  they  are  so  good  and  so 
well  set  in  their  places  that  rarely  does  a  reader  feel  in 
clined  to  accuse  Saxe  of  overstraining  his  powers. 

Leland,  Field,  Riley,  and  Harris. — Merely  mentioning 
in  passing  the  name  of  Saxe's  contemporary,  Frederick 
Swartwout  Cozzens  (1818-1869),  author  of  "The  Sparrow- 
grass  Papers"  (1856),  we  call  attention  to  Robert  Henry 
Newell  (1836-1901),  whose  "Orpheus  C.  Kerr  Papers" 
in  three  volumes  (1861-1869)  contained  presumably  funny 
comments  on  the  Civil  War,  and  to  David  Ross  Locke 
(1833-1888),  who,  writing  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Petro 
leum  Vesuvius  Naseby,"  wittily  supported  the  administra 
tion  of  Lincoln,  and  attacked  that  of  Johnson,  in  newspaper 
articles  afterward  collected  into  a  book  entitled  "Divers 
Views,  Opinions,  and  Prophecies  of  Yours  Truly"  (1865). 
These  three  men,  although  deserving  mention  on  account 
of  the  position  they  once  held,  are  now  little  read,  but  their 
contemporary  Charles  Godfrey  Leland  (1824-1903)  seems 
to  have  established  something  like  permanent  renown  for 
himself.  Graduated  from  Princeton  in  1846,  he  became 
prominent  in  various  fields  of  journalism  and  authorship. 
His  best-known  work  is  "Hans  Breitmann's  Ballads,"  of 
which  a  collected  edition  appeared  in  1895.  These  poems 
are  written  in  the  dialect  known  as  Pennsylvania  Dutch, 
and  relate  the  exploits  of  their  clownish  hero  in  various 
exigencies  and  circumstances.  In  this  same  school  of  mild 
humourists  we  may  class  also  a  number  of  writers  most  of 
whom  are  still  in  the  prime  of  life.  From  the  host  we  select 
three  as  typical.  Eugene  Field  (1850-1895),  whose  un 
timely  death  cut  short  a  career  of  promise  already  blossom 
ing  into  fulfilment,  may  be  mentioned  first.  In  addition 
to  much  serious  work,  he  published  "The  Tribune  Primer" 
(1882),  a  mock  imitation  of  a  child's  first  reading-book, 
and  "Culture's  Garden"  (1887),  a  series  of  clever  skits 
directed  against  those  who  make  a  pretence  of  ultra- 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

refinement.  With  Field  for  some  reason  James  Whit  comb 
Riley  (born  in  1853)  has  always  been  popularly  associated, 
possibly  because  both  wrote  poems  having  childhood  as 
subject-matter.  Mr.  Riley's  humorous  work  is  scattered 
through  his  several  books,  of  which  "Rhymes  of  Childhood  " 
(1890)  and  "Home  Folks"  (1900)  are  typical,  if  not  the 
best.  An  author  of  a  series  of  books  which  appeal  at  once 
to  students  of  popular  tradition  and  to  general  readers 
whether  young  or  old  is  found  in  Joel  Chandler  Harris 
(1848-1908).  Publishing  a  book  in  1880  on  Afro-American 
folk-lore  under  the  title  "Uncle  Remus,  His  Songs  and  His 
Sayings,"  Mr.  Harris  found  to  his  surprise  that  he  had 
an  audience  who  listened  to  him  with  mirth  instead  of 
gravity.  It  is  improbable  that  more  than  a  mere  handful 
of  his  readers  suspect  for  even  a  moment  that  the  several 
stories  put  into  the  mouth  of  Uncle  Remus  are  a  real 
contribution  to  anthropological  data.  In  his  later  years, 
Mr.  Harris  wisely  threw  all  his  reports  into  literary  form, 
with  the  result  that  there  was  a  steady  rise  in  his  popularity 
as  he  gave  us  successively  "Nights  with  Uncle  Remus" 
(1883),  "Mingo,  and  Other  Sketches"  (1884),  and  "Daddy 
Jake,  the  Runaway"  (1889). 

The  Boisterous  Humourists. — Turning  now  to  the  "bois 
terous  school"  of  American  humour,  we  may  dwell  for  a 
time  upon  the  chief  characteristics  exhibited  by  members 
of  the  group.  In  the  first  place,  most  of  them  have  for 
gotten  how  to  spell.  There  is  something  ludicrous  in  the 
appearance  of  the  word  "through"  masquerading  in  the 
garb  "thru,"  whatever  may  be  the  plea  of  the  society  of 
spelling  reformers  to  the  contrary;  and  certainly  no  one, 
except  a  school-teacher,  can  be  other  than  amused  to  see 
such  common  words  as  "laugh,"  "feel,"  "funny,"  and  the 
like  making  their  bows  as  "laff,"  "feal,"  and  "phuny." 
Laughable  as  this  may  be,  however,  it  is  not  too  much  to 
insist  that,  if  the  appeal  is  only  to  the  eye,  if  the  wit  evapor- 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    353 

ates  when  the  words  are  not  seen  but  merely  heard,  then 
the  humour  is  not  of  very  high  order.  In  the  second  place, 
most  of  the  members  of  the  boisterous  school,  along  with 
their  loss  of  power  as  spellers,  have  also  forgotten  how  to 
tell  the  truth.  "This  inclination  towards  outrageous  exag 
geration,"  said  Lowell,  "is  a  prime  characteristic  of  American 
humour."  "There  is,"  he  says  elsewhere,  "something  irre 
sistibly  comic  in  the  conception  of  a  negro  so  black  that 
charcoal  made  a  white  mark  on  him,  or  in  the  idea  of  a 
soil  so  fertile  that  a  nail  planted  in  it  becomes  a  railroad 
spike  before  morning."  This  example  of  untruthfulness 
might  also  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the  third  trait 
of  the  group  now  under  discussion — that  of  producing 
the  most  absurd  paradoxes  and  of  bringing  into  juxta 
position  the  most  diverse  uses  of  the  same  word.  This  is 
more  than  mere  word-play;  it  is  rather  what  might  be 
termed  the  apotheosis  of  the  pun.  It  underlies  the  ma 
jority  of  jokes  that  are  found  in  the  American  newspaper, 
and  is  at  once  the  admiration  and  the  despair  of  those  who 
try  to  analyse  or  to  imitate  the  subtlety  of  our  humour. 

Josh  Billings. — With  these  three  characteristics  in  mind 
we  may  now  give  some  brief  attention  to  the  humourists 
themselves.  Of  the  "boisterous  school"  the  earliest  were 
Henry  Wheeler  Shaw,  Benjamin  Penhallow  Shillaber,  and 
Charles  Farrar  Browne.  If  by  chance  these  names  seem 
quite  unfamiliar,  the  strangeness  will  disappear  when  at 
tention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  three  men  respectively 
wrote  under  the  noms  de  plume  of  "Josh  Billings,"  "Mrs. 
Partington,"  and  "Artemus  Ward."  Shaw  (1818-1885) 
was  born  in  Lanesborough,  Massachusetts,  and  died  in 
Monterey,  California.  To  complete  his  formal  education 
he  entered  Hamilton  College  in  Clinton,  New  York;  but 
tiring  of  the  life  there,  he  went  on  to  the  West  and  spent  a 
number  of  years  undergoing  the  many  experiences  offered 
by  frontier  life.  Returning  East  in  1858,  he  became  an 

23 


354  The  Nineteenth  Century 

auctioneer  in  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  where  he  also 
began  to  contribute  to  various  magazines  and  newspapers. 
He  attracted  little  attention  until  he  invented  an  amusing 
system  of  phonetic  spelling  supposed  to  represent  his  homely 
method  of  pronunciation.  His  chief  works  were  his 
"Farmer's  Allminax"  published  annually  between  1870 
and  1880,  "Every  Boddy's  Friend"  (1876),  and  "Josh 
Billings'  Spice  Box"  (1881).  A  quotation  or  two  will 
exhibit  both  the  thought  and  the  form  which  characterise 
the  contents  of  his  several  volumes  of  writing:. 

"Fallin'  in  luv  is  like  fallin'  in  molases  —  sweet  but 
drefful  dobby." 

"Yu  can't  tell  what  makes  a  kis  taste  so  good  eny  more 
than  you  kin  a  peech.  Eny  man  who  kin  set  down  wher 
it  is  cool  and  tell  what  a  kis  tastes  like  hain't  got  eny  more 
taste  in  his  mouth  than  a  knot-hoi  hez." 

Mrs.  Partington. — Benjamin  P.  Shillaber  (1814-1890) 
was  influenced  by  Sheridan  even  more  strongly  than  was 
Saxe  by  the  elder  Hood.  Mrs.  Partington  is  America's 
Mrs.  Malaprop.  Her  misuse  of  the  English  language  Shil 
laber  recorded  in  three  books  bearing  the  several  titles, 
"Life  and  Sayings  of  Mrs.  Partington"  (1854),  "Parting- 
tonian  Patchwork  "  (1873),  and  "Ike  and  his  Friend  "  (1879). 
Mrs.  Partington's  likeness  to  her  English  predecessor,  or, 
as  she  would  undoubtedly  have  said,  her  "  predecessoress,  " 
may  be  seen  in  her  chance  remark:  "I  am  not  so  young  as 
I  was  once,  and  I  don't  believe  I  shall  ever  be,  if  I  live  to 
the  age  of  Samson,  which,  heaven  knows  as  well  as  I  do, 
I  don't  want  to,  for  I  would  n't  be  a  centurion  or  an  octagon 
and  survive  my  factories  and  become  idiomatic  by  any 
means.  But  then  there  is  no  knowing  how  a  thing  will 
turn  out  till  it  takes  place,  and  we  shall  come  to  an  end 
some  day,  though  we  may  never  live  to  see  it." 

Artemus    Ward. — Charles    F.    Brown    (1834-1867),    the 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    355 

third  of  the  humourists  writing  about  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  was  born  in  Waterford,  Maine,  and  lived 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  as  his  newspaper 
work  called  him  first  to  one  town  and  then  to  another. 
He  made  extensive  lecture  trips,  and  finally  went  in  1866 
to  England,  where  he  died  in  March  of  the  following  year. 
He  had  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  American  con 
tributor  to  Punch.  He  published  during  his  lifetime  a  num 
ber  of  books,  among  which  were  ' '  Artemus  Ward :  His  Book  " 
(1865),  "Artemus  Ward:  His  Book  of  Goaks"  (1865),  and 
"Artemus  Ward  in  London"  (1867).  Undoubtedly  his 
best  single  work  was  a  lecture  giving  an  account  of  his  visit 
to  the  Mormons.  Learning  from  Brigham  Young  that  he 
was  married  to  eighty  wives  and  sealed  to  as  many  more, 
Artemus  remarked  that  the  prophet  was  "  the  most  married- 
est  man"  he  ever  saw.  Ward  then  went  on  to  say:  "In  a 
privit  conversashun  with  Brigham  I  learnt  the  follerin' 
fax:  It  takes  him  six  weeks  to  kiss  his  wives.  He  don't 
do  it  only  onct  a  year  and  sez  it  's  wuss  nor  cleanin'  house. 
He  don't  pretend  to  know  his  children,  there  is  so  many 
of  'em,  tho  they  all  know  him.  He  sez  about  every  child 
he  meats  call  him  Par  and  he  takes  it  for  granted  it  is  so." 

Later  Writers  of  Boisterous  Humour. — Taking  up  now 
the  writers  who  were  born  in  the  decade  immediately 
preceding  the  turning  point  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
we  may  regard  as  worthy  of  special  mention  Charles 
Heber  Clark,  Charles  Bertrand  Lewis,  Robert  Jones  Bur- 
dette,  and  Edgar  Wilson  Nye.  Of  these,  all  save  one 
are  still  living  and  still  writing.  Mr.  Clark  was  born  in 
Berlin,  Maryland,  in  1841.  For  many  years  he  has  been 
the  editor  of  The  Textile  Record,  published  in  Philadelphia, 
to  which  he  has  contributed  a  number  of  articles  on  eco 
nomic  themes.  He  is  best  known,  however,  by  two  books  of 
humour:  "Out  of  the  Hurly  Burly"  and  "Elbow  Room," 
both  written  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  "Max  Adeler," 


356  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Mr.  Lewis  (born  in  1842)  is  best  known  by  his  pseudonym, 
"M.  Quad,"  a  title  drawn  from  the  parlance  of  printers. 
Mr.  Lewis'  earlier  work  was  much  more  spontaneous  than 
that  which  he  is  producing  now.  Connected  with  The 
Detroit  Free  Press,  he  contributed  to  it  a  steady  stream  of 
character  sketches  of  great  variety.  Collecting  them  later, 
he  published  them  under  various  titles.  Of  these  volumes 
the  best  are  "Brother  Gardener's  Lime-Kiln  Club,"  "Quad's 
Odds,"  and  "Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bowser." 

Edgar  W.  Nye  (1850-1896),  best  known  as  "Bill  Nye," 
was  born  in  Shirley,  Maine,  and  died  near  Asheville, 
North  Carolina.  Educated  in  Wisconsin,  he  first  turned 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  law.  Abandoning  that  pursuit 
after  having  been  admitted  to  the  bar,  he  dabbled  in  several 
different  occupations,  and  finally  became  a  newspaper 
correspondent.  For  a  short  time  he  travelled  with  James 
Whitcomb  Riley,  the  two  giving  a  series  of  entertainments 
which  proved  widely  popular.  Nye's  published  works 
were  many,  but  they  have  little  chance  of  permanent  life. 
As  good  as  any  are  "Bill  Nye  and  the  Boomerang"  (1881), 
"A  Comic  History  of  the  United  States"  (1894),  and  "The 
Railroad  Guide"  (1888),  the  last  written  in  partnership 
with  Mr.  Riley.  Mr.  Burdette,  the  last  of  the  quartette 
here  mentioned  together,  was  born  in  Greensboro,  Pennsyl 
vania,  in  1844,  and  received  his  schooling  in  Peoria,  Illinois. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  a  soldier  in  the  Union  Army. 
At  the  close  of  the  struggle,  Mr.  Burdette  returned  to 
Peoria,  where  he  was  connected  with  first  one  and  then 
another  of  the  newspapers  published  there.  Finally,  failing 
in  a  paper  issued  under  his  own  proprietorship,  he  went  to 
Burlington,  Iowa,  and  became  a  member  of  the  staff  of 
The  Hawkeye.  While  engaged  in  newspaper  work,  Mr. 
Burdette  began  to  write  funny  things  to  amuse  his  in 
valid  wife;  and  these,  published  later  in  the  columns  of 
the  paper,  have  made  him  known  throughout  the  United 
States.  He  was  licensed  as  a  Baptist  preacher  in  1887, 


The  Essayists  and  the  Humourists    357 

since  when  he  has  signed  himself  Robert  Burdette,  D.,  on 
the  ground  that  the  abbreviation  D.  is  the  next  thing  to 
that  of  D.D.  Mr.  Burdette's  best  humorous  work  may 
be  read  in  "The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Moustache  and  other 
Hawkeyetems"  (1877)  and  "Chimes  from  a  Jester's  Bells" 
(1897). 

Mark  Twain. — Of  American  humourists  "Mark  Twain," 
known  in  private  life  as  Samuel  Langhorne  Clemens,  is 
readily  placed  foremost  by  critics  and  admirers  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  He  has  the  right  to  be  considered  the 
Nestor  of  our  writers,  for,  born  in  1835,  he  began  to  produce 
his  earliest  work  when  Irving  was  in  his  prime,  and  has 
therefore  seen  at  least  one  phase  of  every  school  in  our 
literature.  His  younger  years  were  those  of  the  decline 
of  the  Knickerbocker  writers;  he  saw  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  Concord  group,  the  Cambridge  poets,  and  the  New  York 
writers;  and  now  he  is  present  at  the  general  upward  move 
ment  all  over  the  country,  including  the  South  and  the 
West.  His  relation  to  our  literature  is  not  unlike  that  of 
Fanny  Burney  to  the  novel ;  she  was  born  before  Richard 
son  published  "The  History  of  Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  and 
did  not  die  until  twelve  years  after  the  birth  of  George 
Meredith,  thus  being  contemporaneous  with  the  greatest 
English  novelists  from  the  first  to  the  last.  Mr.  Clemens 
was  born  in  Florida,  Missouri,  and  when  scarcely  thirteen 
years  old  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer.  Barring  a  few 
years  spent  as  pilot  upon  the  Mississippi,  he  has  devoted 
his  life  to  literary  work.  His  writings  include  "The  In 
nocents  Abroad"  (1869),  the  humorous  record  of  a 
trip  in  the  countries  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere;  "The 
Gilded  Age"  (1873),  a  novel  written  conjointly  with 
Charles  Dudley  Warner;  "The  Adventures  of  Tom 
Sawyer"  (1876),  and  "The  Adventures  of  Huckleberry 
Finn"  (1884),  both  books  about  boys  whose  exploits  are 
interesting  to  young  and  old  alike;  "A  Connecticut  Yankee 


358  The  Nineteenth  Century 

at  the  Court  of  King  Arthur"  (1889),  a  cruel  parody  of 
Malory's  "Morte  d'Arthur";  and  "Christian  Science,"  an 
attempt,  despite  all  the  fun  it  makes,  to  report  sincerely 
upon  a  careful  investigation  of  the  claims  of  Mrs.  Mary 
Baker  Eddy  and  her  disciples.  It  is  unfortunate  for  Mr. 
Clemens  that  he  is  a  humourist,  for  he  has  had  to  suffer 
the  lot  long  ago  mentioned  by  Holmes  as  the  fate  of  the 
fun-producer :  no  one  can  ever  take  such  a  man  seriously  ; 
no  one  can  believe  that  he  ever  has  any  other  purpose 
than  to  tickle  our  fancy  or  awaken  our  laughter.  Yet  it 
is  not  impossible  that  future  critics  may  come  to  regard 
"The  Prince  and  the  Pauper"  (1882)  and  "The  Personal 
Recollections  of  Joan  of  Arc"  (1896),  two  serious  and 
dignified  pieces  of  writing,  as  Mr.  Clemens's  best  work. 

Within  recent  years  Oxford  University  has  conferred  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  upon  Mr.  Clemens  in  recognition  of  his 
contributions  to  literature.  This  action  by  a  great  insti 
tution  of  learning  has  filled  many  minds  with  surprise, 
nor  have  all  of  them  quite  recovered  their  mental  equi 
librium  yet.  Some,  indeed,  are  still  asking  the  old  ques 
tion,  "Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets?"  and  can  hardly 
believe  their  ears  when  they  receive  the  answer,  "Yea, 
verily!"  Humour  at  last  seems  to  be  coming  to  its  own. 
Said  Mr.  Meredith  a  few  years  ago:  "Comedy,  we  have 
to  admit,  was  never  one  of  the  most  honoured  of  the  Muses. 
She  was  in  her  origin,  short  of  laughter,  the  loudest  expres 
sion  of  the  little  civilisation  of  men."  While  it  must  be 
admitted  that  when  he  wrote  this  the  greatest  English 
writer  now  living  had  in  mind  something  much  more  deli 
cate,  much  more  refined,  much  more  subtle,  than  anything 
yet  produced  in  America,  it  is  not  beyond  thought  that 
even  he  would  let  us  classify  the  fun-makers  of  this  country 
as  true  humourists.  They  deal  little  in  satire,  little  in 
irony,  but  they  have  much  in  common  with  those  to  whom 
Mr.  Meredith  said:  "If  you  laugh  all  round  a  person,  tumble 
him,  roll  him  about,  deal  him  a  smack,  and  drop  a  tear  on 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines          359 

him,  own  his  likeness  to  you,  and  yours  to  your  neighbour, 
spare  him  as  little  as  you  shun,  pity  him  as  much  as  you 
expose,  it  is  a  spirit  of  Humour  that  is  moving  you." 

V.       THE  ORATORS  AND  THE  DIVINES. 

The  Historical  Background. — In  America,  oratory  has 
been  the  most  fortunate  of  all  the  arts.  Whether  in  the 
era  prior  to  the  Revolution,  or  in  the  formative  years  of 
the  Republic  before  1800,  or  in  the  first  half  and  more 
of  the  nineteenth  century — in  the  pulpit  as  well  as  at  the 
bar  and  in  the  forum,  American  orators  have  drawn  their 
inspiration  directly  from  the  political  or  religious  life  of 
the  nation.  From  the  nature  of  things,  no  other  art, 
neither  poetry,  nor  painting,  nor  music,  could  bear  so  in 
timate  a  relation  to  the  course  of  our  national  existence 
as  the  utterance  of  the  public  speaker.  Every  crisis  in 
our  history,  the  Revolution  itself,  the  War  of  1812,  the 
struggle  between  North  and  South,  was  hastened  by  the 
spoken  word.  Trained  poets  have  been  wanting  among  us ; 
trained  speakers,  in  so  far  as  their  powers  could  develop 
without  a  correspondingly  high  development  of  poetry 
and  music,  we  have  always  possessed;  men  skilled  in  rousing 
enthusiasm  and  reverence  throughout  congregations  of  the 
pious,  men  alert  to  kindle  the  intelligence  of  a  legislature 
or  to  sway  the  minds  of  judge  and  jury.  From  the  first, 
this  training  was  continuous  and  effective.  In  the  bare 
colonial  churches  thought,  word,  and  action  of  the  pastor 
were  criticised  by  an  audience  that  had  braved  the  sea  and 
the  savage  for  the  privilege  of  listening.  From  the  colonial 
courts  of  justice  spread  the  education  which  warranted 
Burke  in  saying  of  a  litigious  populace:  "In  no  country 
perhaps  in  the  world  is  the  law  so  general  a  study.  The 
profession  itself  is  numerous  and  powerful  .  .  .  But  all 
who  read,  and  most  do  read,,  endeavour  to  obtain  some 
smattering  in  that  science."  With  this  knowledge  of  law, 


360  The  Nineteenth  Century 

every  other  colonist  was  a  keen  debater  for  his  private 
rights  and,  when  the  time  came,  for  the  rights  of  his  com 
munity  or  nation.  From  a  population  thus  educated  sprang 
the  forensic  leaders  of  the  Revolution;  and  to  its  sources  in 
eighteenth-century  popular  education  we  follow  back  the 
steady  stream  of  American  eloquence  which  in  the  nine 
teenth  century  runs  strong  and  full  in  the  noblest  efforts 
of  American  literature — say  Webster's  tribute  to  Massa 
chusetts  in  the  reply  to  Hayne,  and  Lincoln's  undying 
speech  at  Gettysburg. 

So  close  indeed  is  the  bond  between  juridic  and  political 
history  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  achievement  of  the  great 
American  orators  on  the  other,  that  they  can  be  sundered, 
as  in  the  following  pages,  only  for  purposes  of  general 
reference.  Since  a  political  history  of  the  United  States 
from  the  year  1783  is  not  here  expected,  we  must  limit 
ourselves  to  brief  notice  of  a  few  representative  men,  taken 
in  something  like  chronological  order,  and  mainly  between 
the  years  1800  and  1865.  With  the  Civil  War,  or  perhaps 
with  the  second  inaugural  address  of  President  Lincoln, 
ended  the  golden  age  of  national  eloquence. 

Precursors  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. — The  careers 
of  James  Otis  (1725-83),  Samuel  Adams  (1722-1803), 
Josiah  Quincy,  Junior  (1744-75),  and  Patrick  Henry 
(1736-99),  fall  largely  in  the  period  covered  by  the  pages 
from  Tyler;  and  the  orations  and  political  writings  of  the 
Revolutionary  Period  itself  do  not  come  within  the  scope 
of  the  present  sketch.  Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  make 
a  line  of  sharp  division  in  the  case  of  public  men  whom 
we  instinctively  couple  with  the  earliest  days  of  the  Re 
public,  but  whose  voices  were  heard  to  the  verge  of  the 
next  century,  or  even  beyond.  The  "Farewell  Address" 
of  Washington  to  his  countrymen  in  1796,  so  long  re 
garded  with  veneration,  was,  in  spite  of  its  conservative 
form,  its  Johnsonian  balance,  a  document  with  matter  for 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines          361 

the  coming  age.  However,  it  is  clear  that  statesmen  who 
were  in  their  prime  at  the  time  of  Washington's  death  in 
1799  more  particularly  require  our  attention. 

Fisher  Ames. — Among  these  is  Fisher  Ames  (1758- 
1808).  Admitted  to  Harvard  at  the  age  of  twelve,  after 
graduation  he  first  engaged  in  teaching,  then  studied  law, 
and  entering  politics,  became  a  force  among  the  Federalists. 
Long  the  victim  of  ill  health,  he  nevertheless  made  his 
superior  mental  endowment  felt  in  the  counsels  of  the 
nation.  His  "Tomahawk  Speech"  (1796),  on  Jay's  treaty 
with  Great  Britain,  contained  passages  of  splendour  on  the 
fear  of  Indian  massacres.  For  the  eloquence  of  this 
speech  he  has  been  compared  to  Wilberforce,  Brougham, 
Burke,  Pitt,  and  Fox.  He  could  not  have  resembled  them 
all.  Ames  had  a  fastidious  taste,  was  cautious  and  digni 
fied  in  his  utterances,  and  was  not  desirous  of  a  cheap 
popularity.  "To  be  the  favourite  of  an  ignorant  multi 
tude,"  he  observed,  "a  man  must  descend  to  their  level." 
Four  years  before  he  died,  his  health  constrained  him  to 
decline  the  presidency  of  Harvard. 

The  Early  Nineteenth  Century. — The  activity  of  Rufus 
King  (1755-1827)  and  others  continued  somewhat  later. 
This  friend  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  collaborator  with 
him  in  the  political  essays  signed  "Camillus,"  was  in  1796 
accorded  the  delicate  function  of  Minister  to  England. 
In  1813  the  Legislature  of  New  York  elected  him  to  the 
United  States  Senate;  here  he  won  laurels  for  his  speech 
on  the  destruction  of  Washington  by  the  British.  He 
returned  to  the  Senate  in  1820,  and  he  was  Minister  to 
England  again  under  President  Adams. 

John  Marshall. — The  name  of  John  Marshall  (1755- 
J835)  we  naturally  associate  with  his  momentous  work  of 
interpreting  the  Constitution.  The  dry  light  of  his  in- 


362  The  Nineteenth  Century 

tellect  and  his  lack  of  passion  were  more  suited  to  purely 
legal  exposition  than  to  the  eloquence  of  debate.  When 
he  went  to  Congress  in  1798,  the  cogency  of  his  argu 
ment  was  already  known.  It  is  sufficiently  demonstrated 
by  his  speech  in  Robbins'  case  (1800),  a  case  that  in 
volved  the  international  law  governing  murder  committed 
upon  the  high  seas  by  a  citizen  of  one  country  sailing  on 
the  ship  of  another.  Marshall's  uninspiring  "Life  of 
Washington  "  is  valuable  as  a  repository  of  plain  fact. 

Morris  and  De  Witt.— Gouverneur  Morris  (1752-1816) 
was  early  famous  for  his  eloquence.  His  thought  was 
orderly,  his  style  finished.  Successful  in  the  practice  of 
law,  and  distinguished  for  his  services  during  the  Revolu 
tion,  he  became  a  zealous  Federalist,  entering  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1800.  Here  his  most  notable  effort  was 
his  "Speech  on  the  Judiciary"  (1802).  Clinton  De  Witt 
(1769-1828),  who  was  Mayor  of  New  York  City  most  of 
the  time  between  1803  and  1815,  was  also  in  the  Senate 
for  two  years,  and  opposed  the  redoubtable  Morris  on  the 
question  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi.  De  Witt  was 
a  man  of  wide  interests,  being  something  of  a  scientist 
and  historian;  his  practical  sense  recognised  the  value  of 
inland  waterways.  He  merits  more  attention  than  can 
here  be  given  him. 

Gore,  Dexter,  and  Others. — The  same  is  true  of  the 
following:  Christopher  Gore  (1758-1829),  who  in  1814 
reached  the  Senate,  to  remain  three  years,  and  who  spoke 
on  "The  Prohibition  of  Certain  Imports"  (1814)  and  on 
"Direct  Taxation"  (1815);  Samuel  Dexter  (1761-1816), 
Secretary  of  War  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury ;  James 
A.  Bayard  (1767-1815),  lawyer,  Senator,  Commissioner 
at  Ghent  in  1814;  William  Branch  Giles  (1762-1840); 
Edward  Livingston  (1764—1836),  jurist,  diplomat,  Secretary 
of  State;  John  Sergeant  (1779-1852),  candidate  for  Vice- 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         363 

President  on  the  Clay  ticket  of  1832;  John  J.  Crittenden 
(1787-1863),  lawyer  and  statesman;  James  Hillhouse 
(1789-1846),  orator  as  well  as  poet. 

William  Pinkney. — Among  the  noteworthy  orators 
during  the  first  twenty  years  of  the  last  century  was 
William  Pinkney  (1764-1822).  The  son  of  a  sympathiser 
with  England,  he  was  himself  devoted  to  the  cause  of 
American  freedom.  His  prominence  in  the  affairs  of 
Maryland  ushered  him  into  national  concerns.  He  took 
part  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  was  wounded.  He  was 
Attorney-General  under  Madison,  but  resigned  for  the 
sake  of  his  private  practice.  He  was  made  Minister  to 
Russia  in  1816;  in  1820  he  entered  the  United  States 
Senate.  A  specimen  of  his  eloquence  may  be  seen  in 
his  argument  before  the  Supreme  Court  (1815)  in  the 
case  of  the  prize  ship  Nereide.  Pinkney  was  fond  of 
classical  learning,  and  well  versed  in  current  literature. 
He  prided  himself  on  his  accuracy  in  the  use  of  English. 
This  made  him  over-conscious  in  his  style,  so  that  his 
thought  seems  artificial.  His  death  is  said  to  have  been 
partly  caused  by  his  labours  in  the  preparation  and  de 
livery  of  an  argument. 

Quincy,  Gallatin,  and  Emmet. — Josiah  Quincy  (1772- 
1864),  son  of  Josiah  Quincy  of  Revolutionary  fame,  was 
president  of  Harvard  from  1829  to  1845.  Besides  his 
"History  of  Harvard  University,"  he  was  the  author  of 
many  pamphlets  and  public  addresses.  "His  career  in 
Congress  was  distinguished  chiefly  for  his  opposition  to 
the  Embargo,  to  the  War  of  1812,  and  to  the  admission 
of  Louisiana."  Albert  Gallatin  (1761-1849),  leaving  his 
birthplace,  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  came  to  Boston  in 
1781,  taught  French  in  Harvard,  went  to  Virginia,  and 
there  became  the  friend  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  was  sent 
to  Congress  in  1795,  and  thereafter  entrusted  with  special 


364  The  Nineteenth  Century 

missions  to  Holland  and  England.  He  was  also  Minister 
to  France  (1816),  and  Minister  to  England  (1826).  Gal- 
latin's  intuitions  were  as  quick  and  sure  as  his  character 
was  upright  and  urbane.  His  information,  as  in  his  speech 
(1796)  on  the  earlier  British  treaty,  was  ample  and  exact. 
Among  his  innumerable  services  to  the  country  of  his 
adoption,  not  the  least  were  his  efforts  on  behalf  of  internal 
commerce  and  the  improvement  in  methods  of  banking. 
Thomas  Addis  Emmet  (1764-1827)  was  also  a  foreigner — 
a  native  of  Cork.  He  studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh, 
but  turning  to  law,  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1791  and 
settled  at  Dublin.  For  his  share  in  the  Irish  insurrectionary 
movement  he  was  imprisoned ;  after  his  release  he  emigrated 
to  New  York,  where  he  became  an  eminent  pleader.  He 
had  a  "dignified  but  earnest  attitude,  forcible  and  un 
studied  gestures,"  and  a  "powerful  and  expressive  voice." 
"No  orator  knew  better  how  to  enlist  his  hearers  on  the 
side  of  his  client." 

Red  Jacket  and  Tecumseh. — Foreign,  likewise,  although 
bred  within  our  borders,  was  the  eloquence  of  the  In 
dians,  Red  Jacket  and  Tecumseh.  Red  Jacket  was  the 
nickname  of  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha  ("He  keeps  them  awake"), 
otherwise  known  as  "the  last  of  the  Senecas."  He  was  a 
lover  of  peace,  resisting  entanglements,  counselling  the 
Indians  neither  to  fight,  nor  yet  to  mingle,  with  the  whites, 
dissuading  them  against  the  adoption  of  Christianity, 
settled  in  his  ancestral  reverence  for  "the  Great  Spirit." 
His  simple  and  direct  language  was  full  of  sudden  poetic 
energy.  He  died  at  a  great  age  in  1830.  Tecumseh 
(17 70?-! 8 1 2),  in  many  things  his  opposite,  was  killed  at 
the  Battle  of  the  Thames,  where  he  fought  with  the  Eng 
lish  against  the  United  States.  A  born  leader  was  Tecum 
seh,  magnificent  in  his  proportions,  noble  in  his  bearing, 
fiery  and  magnetic.  Prior  to  the  War  of  1812  he  tried  to 
enlist  the  Indians  of  the  South  and  West  in  a  general  insur- 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         365 

rection  against  the  government.  He  went  from  tribe  to 
tribe,  reproaching  them  with  their  debasement  through 
white  civilisation,  and  abusing  the  Federal  authority. 

William  Wirt. — Of  Swiss  descent,  one  of  the  ablest 
men  this  country  developed  in  his  time  was  William  Wirt 
(1772-1834).  His  arraignment  of  Aaron  Burr  at  the 
latter's  trial  in  1807  was  masterly,  and  made  Wirt's  name 
familiar  to  the  public  ear.  From  1817  to  1828  he  was 
Attorney-General.  In  private  as  in  national  life  his  char 
acter  was  without  stain;  his  correspondence  discloses  an 
honesty  and  consistency  of  statement  and  purpose  almost 
unequalled.  His  imaginative  "Letters  of  the  British  Spy" 
(1803)  described  Virginian  society  and  American  elo 
quence  as  they  might  appear  to  an  unbiassed  traveller. 
"The  Life  and  Character  of  Patrick  Henry"  (1817)  was 
roundly  praised  by  Jefferson.  Of  Wirt's  occasional  ad 
dresses  none  was  more  admired  than  that  delivered  in 
1830  before  the  students  of  Rutgers  College. 

Judge  Story. — The  voluminous  works  of  Joseph  Story 
(1779-1845),  including  text-books  on  law,  are  in  part 
made  up  of  his  discourses.  He  began  life  as  a  poet,  but 
attained  his  first  eminence  as  a  lawyer.  Before  his  ap 
pointment  to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  he  was 
heard  on  the  floor  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  As 
professor  in  the  Harvard  Law  School  he  proved  an  ac 
ceptable  lecturer. 

John  Quincy  Adams. — The  younger  Adams  (1767-1848), 
sixth  President  of  the  United  States,  received  from  his 
father,  the  second  President,  specific  training  for  the  career 
of  statesman;  even  his  boyhood  was  passed  in  the  midst 
of  political  and  diplomatic  life.  He  studied  at  Ley  den, 
then  at  Harvard,  where,  during  an  interim  in  his  public 
activities,  he  afterward  held  the  chair  of  rhetoric  and  belles- 


366  The  Nineteenth  Century 

lettres.  He  saw  diplomatic  service  in  Holland,  Russia, 
England,  was  in  the  Senate,  and  was  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives.  He  was  a  foe  of  slavery,  but  not  a  Garrisonian 
Abolitionist.  In  1836  he  urged  upon  Congress  its  right 
under  the  Constitution,  as  he  believed,  to  abolish  slavery 
by  legal  enactment.  His  influence  was  strong  for  freedom 
of  debate.  This  "old  man  eloquent"  continued  speaking 
when  he  was  over  eighty,  and  died  on  the  floor  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  He  was  a  diarist,  a  poet,  a  translator. 
He  was  a  clear,  fluent,  not  very  terse  speaker,  having  the 
agglomerative  and  developing  style  of  the  parliamentary 
orator.  When  he  desired,  he  could  be  ironical. 

The  High  Tide  of  American  Oratory. — The  burning 
questions  of  the  rights  of  an  individual  state  as  against 
its  duties  to  the  central  government,  of  the  extension  of 
negro  slavery,  or  its  territorial  limitation,  or  its  entire 
abolition,  brought  on  the  crisis  of  the  Civil  War,  which  is 
the  central  fact  in  American  history.  Correspondingly, 
during  the  interval  between  the  War  of  1812  and  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion,  their  eloquence  fired  by  these  and 
related  questions,  lie  the  careers  of  our  greatest  orators. 

"Old  Bullion."— Thomas  Hart  Benton  (1782-1858)  can 
not  be  reckoned  one  of  these.  Indifferent  to  the  spread 
of  slavery,  he  was  in  favour  of  developing  the  great  Western 
territories  at  any  cost.  He  urged  a  reduction  of  the  prices 
charged  by  the  government  in  the  sale  of  public  lands, 
and  promoted  the  interests  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific. 
As  an  advocate  of  specie  currency  he  acquired  the  sobriquet 
of  "Old  Bullion."  Retiring  from  the  Senate  after  extended 
usefulness  there,  he  published  his  "Thirty  Years'  View," 
a  history  of  the  workings  of  the  American  Government 
from  1820  to  1850,  highly  commended  by  Bryant  for  its 
taste  and  simplicity  of  style. 

Henry    Clay. — Slightly    the    senior   of    Benton,    Henry 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines          367 

Clay  (1777-1852)  was  in  public  life  for  an  even  longer 
time.  By  birth  he  was  a  Virginian.  In  the  face  of  early 
hardship  he  rose  to  be  Senator  from  Kentucky  (1806—1807) ; 
from  1811  until  1852,  for  forty-one  years,  he  was  almost 
steadily  in  the  eye  of  the  nation.  A  leader  of  the  Whig 
party,  he  sided  with  his  great  opponent,  Calhoun,  against 
the  more  timid  Madison,  in  precipitating  the  second  war 
with  England;  and  he  was  prominent  in  the  negotiations 
for  peace  that  followed.  Clay  was  four  times  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  four  times  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  President  of  the  United  States.  The  in 
fluence  which  he  had  shown  over  juries  in  Kentucky  he 
likewise  exercised  in  the  national  legislature.  In  the 
management  of  conflicting  interests,  and  in  furthering  the 
measures  of  his  party,  he  had  a  genius  for  detecting  what 
was  possible  or  expedient.  The  Missouri  Compromise  of 
1820,  the  Tariff  Compromise  of  1833,  and  the  Slavery 
Compromise  of  1850  were  largely  owing  to  him.  He  was 
a  master  in  effecting  legislation.  According  to  Blaine, 
"Mr.  Webster  argued  the  principle,  Mr.  Clay  embodied  it 
in  a  statute."  Among  his  celebrated  speeches  were  those 
on  the  New  Army  Bill  (1813),  on  the  Seminole  War  (1819), 
and  on  the  Tariff  (1824).  At  his  death,  a  colleague,  Joseph 
R.  Underwood,  said  in  the  Senate: 

The  character  of  Henry  Clay  was  formed  and  developed  by  the 
influence  of  our  free  institutions.  His  physical  and  mental  or 
ganisation  eminently  qualified  him  to  become  a  great  and 
impressive  orator.  His  person  was  tall,  slender,  and  command 
ing;  his  temperament  ardent,  fearless,  and  full  of  hope;  his 
countenance  clear,  expressive,  and  variable — indicating  the  emotion 
which  predominated  at  the  moment  with  exact  similitude;  his 
voice  cultivated  and  modulated  in  harmony  with  the  sentiment 
he  desired  to  express  .  .  .;  his  eye  beaming  with  intelligence,  and 
flashing  with  coruscations  of  genius;  his  gestures  and  attitudes 
graceful  and  natural.  These  personal  advantages  won  the  pre 
possessions  of  an  audience,  even  before  his  intellectual  powers 
began  to  move  his  hearers;  and  when  his  strong  common  sense, 


368  The  Nineteenth  Century 

his  profound  reasoning,  his  clear  conceptions  of  his  subject  in 
all  its  bearings,  and  his  striking  and  beautiful  illustrations, 
united  with  such  personal  qualities,  were  brought  to  the  dis 
cussion  of  any  question,  his  audience  was  enraptured,  convinced, 
and  led  by  the  orator  as  if  enchanted  by  the  lyre  of  Orpheus. 

John  Caldwell  Calhoun. — The  character  and  intellect 
of  John  Caldwell  Calhoun  (1782-1850)  were  admired 
even  by  those  who  least  cared  for  his  opinions.  A  South 
Carolinian  of  Scotch-Irish  extraction,  he  graduated  from 
Yale,  in  1804,  with  the  highest  honours.  He  towered  in 
political  life  from  1808  until  he  died:  as  leader  of  the  war 
party  under  Madison;  in  upholding  the  doctrine  of  nulli 
fication — that  is,  the  right  of  each  state  to  resist  a  Con 
gressional  enactment  which  the  state  might  deem  injurious ; 
in  the  annexation  of  Texas;  and  in  the  defence  of  slavery. 
Calhoun  was  fearless  and  precise  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duties  as  Secretary  of  War  under  Monroe,  reducing  ex 
penses,  and  rendering  petty  defalcation  impossible.  He 
was  Vice-President  in  1825.  His  ruling  ideas  are  con 
tained  in  his  "Disquisition  on  Government"  and  "Dis 
course  on  the  Government  of  the  United  States"  (in  the 
first  volume  of  his  works),  and  in  speeches  before  the 
Senate — for  example,  on  Nullification  and  the  Force  Bill 
(1833)  and  on  the  Slavery  Question  (1850).  He  was 
thus  characterised  by  Webster: 

The  eloquence  of  Mr.  Calhoun  .  .  .  was  plain,  strong,  terse,  con 
densed,  concise;  sometimes  impassioned — still  always  severe.  Re 
jecting  ornament,  not  seeking  far  for  illustration,  his  power  con 
sisted  in  the  plainness  of  his  propositions,  in  the  clearness  of  his 
logic,  and  in  the  earnestness  and  energy  of  his  manner  .  .  .  His 
demeanour  as  a  Senator  is  known  to  us  all — is  appreciated,  venerated 
by  us  all. 

Hayne  and  Randolph. — When  Calhoun  was  Vice-Presi 
dent,  his  spokesman  in  the  Senate  was  a  fellow  Caro 
linian,  Robert  Young  Hayne  (1791-1840),  who  was  a 
soldier  in  the  War  of  1812,  but  who,  in  his  vindication 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         369 

of  state  rights,  refused  the  Attorney-Generalship  of  the 
country  to  be  Attorney-General  of  South  Carolina.  He 
also  retired  from  the  Senate  to  be  Governor  of  his  State. 
In  his  unlucky  debate  with  Webster  in  1830  he  carried 
sectional  jealousy — of  the  South  against  New  England — 
into  the  question  concerning  the  sale  of  public  lands  in 
the  West.  Graceful  in  person,  of  a  fine  countenance,  in 
dustrious,  commonly  amiable,  Hayne  "had  a  copious  and 
ready  elocution,  flowing  at  will  in  a  strong  and  steady  cur 
rent,  and  rich  in  the  material  that  constitutes  argument." 
His  prejudices,  however,  could  distract  him  from  the  sub 
ject  in  hand.  The  bellicose  Virginian,  John  Randolph 
of  Roanoke  (1773-1833),  was  in  Congress  at  the  age  of 
twenty-six.  His  bitterness  toward  England  seems  exces 
sive.  Eccentric,  singular  also  in  appearance,  biting  and 
unexpected  in  retort,  he  was  a  figure  of  interest  when  he 
came  to  the  Senate  in  1825.  His  duel  with  Henry  Clay 
is  a  matter  of  unpleasant  history.  Enthusiastic  contem 
porary  estimates  of  him  by  Paulding  and  others  have  not 
worn  well. 

Daniel  Webster. — The  prince  of  American  orators,  and 
one  of  the  great  orators  of  modern  times,  was  born  in 
Salisbury,  New  Hampshire,  on  January  18,  1782.  His 
ancestry  was  Scotch.  He  had  the  stinted  education  of  a 
village  school  whose  doors  were  open  for  a  short  term  in 
winter.  Yet  he  could  never  recollect  the  time  when  he 
could  not  read  the  Bible;  and  this  and  the  few  other 
books  that  he  could  obtain  he  perused  so  often  that  he 
virtually  had  them  by  heart.  He  was  fond  of  committing 
passages  to  memory.  But  at  Exeter,  where  he  prepared 
for  college,  there  was  one  thing  which  he  could  not  do: 
"I  could  not  speak  before  the  school."  The  efforts  of 
his  father  made  it  possible  for  him  to  attend  Dartmouth 
College.  He  read  by  himself  with  the  avidity  of  a  Lowell 
— but  he  also  pursued  with  good  intent  the  regular  course 
24 


37°  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  studies.  Finishing  this  course  in  1801,  he  studied  law, 
earned  a  little  money  by  teaching  in  Maine,  and  at  length 
entered  the  office  of  Christopher  Gore  in  Boston — "a  tall, 
gaunt  young  man,  with  rather  a  thin  face,  but  all  the 
peculiarities  of  feature  and  complexion  by  which  he  was 
distinguished  in  later  life."  There  followed  some  years 
of  practice  with  meagre  remuneration,  but  of  unceasing 
study.  In  1813  he  was  sent  to  Congress  from  New  Hamp 
shire.  His  speech  in  that  year  on  the  repeal  of  the  Berlin 
and  Milan  Decrees  elicited  praise  from  Chief  Justice  Mar 
shall,  and  throughout  the  country.  Webster  immediately 
advanced  to  the  front  rank  of  debaters.  It  is  baffling  even 
to  suggest  the  range  and  importance  of  his  subsequent 
labours.  When  the  famous  Dartmouth  College  case, 
apparently  a  forlorn  hope,  was  carried  before  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  in  1818,  Webster's  opening  argument 
as  junior  counsel  brought  an  unlocked  for  settlement  in 
favour  of  the  College;  since  then  the  case  has  furnished  a 
ruling  precedent  in  interpreting  the  Constitutional  clause 
which  prohibits  state  interference  with  the  terms  of  a  past 
contract.  In  1820  he  was  engaged  on  the  revision  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Constitution.  From  1823  to  1827 
he  was  in  the  House  of  Representatives;  from  1827  to 
1841,  and  again  from  1845  to  1850,  in  the  Senate.  He  was 
Secretary  of  State  under  Harrison  and  Tyler,  and  under 
Fillmore.  Through  supposed  concessions  to  slavery  in  his 
speech  of  March  7,  1850,  on  the  Constitution  and  the  Union, 
he  estranged  his  best  friends  in  the  North,  and  had  to  endure 
the  taunt  of  faithlessness  in  Whittier's  "Ichabod."  His 
torians,  however,  have  justified  the  loftiness  of  his  states 
manship  even  here.  He  died  as  Secretary  of  State  under 
Fillmore,  October  24,  1852. 

During  his  reply  to  Hayne  in  1830,  when  Webster 
uttered  his  encomium  on  the  State  of  Massachusetts, 
strong  men  were  moved  to  tears.  One  cannot  read  it  at 
this  distance  without  strange  emotion.  Passages  in  the 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines          371 

second  address  at  Bunker  Hill,  or  the  argument  in  Knapp's 
trial — the  passage  on  the  conscience  of  the  murderer, 
or  more  especially  that  at  the  end  on  the  universal  sense 
of  duty — rise  to  the  point  where  the  ethical  and  aesthetic 
values  of  eloquence  are  one  and  eternal.  One  might  go 
on  to  mention  his  eulogy  on  "Adams  and  Jefferson,"  his 
"First  Settlement  of  New  England" — but  we  should 
hardly  finish  a  mere  enumeration  of  the  speeches  he  de 
livered  during  his  forty  years  of  public  life. 

Consider  [said  Choate]  the  work  he  did  in  that  life  of  forty  years 
— the  range  of  subjects  investigated  and  discussed;  composing  the 
whole  theory  and  practice  of  our  organic  and  administrative  poli 
tics,  foreign  and  domestic;  the  vast  body  of  instructive  thought  he 
produced  and  put  in  possession  of  the  country;  how  much  he 
achieved  in  Congress  as  well  as  at  the  bar;  to  fix  the  true  interpre 
tation,  as  well  as  to  impress  the  transcendent  value  of  the  Constitu 
tion  itself  .  .  .;  how  much  to  establish  in  the  general  mind  the 
great  doctrine  that  the  government  of  the  United  States  is  a 
government  proper,  established  by  the  people  of  the  States,  not 
a  compact  between  sovereign  communities  .  .  .;  to  place  the 
executive  department  of  the  government  on  its  true  basis  .  .  .; 
to  secure  to  that  department  its  just  powers  on  the  one  hand,  and 
on  the  other  hand  to  vindicate  to  the  legislative  department,  and 
especially  to  the  Senate,  all  that  belonged  to  them  .  .  .;  to  develop 
the  vast  material  resources  of  the  country,  and  push  forward  the 
planting  of  the  West  .  .  .;  to  protect  the  vast  mechanical  and 
manufacturing  interests  .  .  . ;  how  much  for  the  right  performance 
of  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  of  all  tasks,  the  ordering  of  the 
foreign  affairs  of  a  nation,  free,  sensitive,  self-conscious  .  .  .;  how 
much  to  compose  with  honour  a  concurrence  of  difficulties  with 
the  first  power  of  the  world. 

His  style  is  simple,  clear,  free  from  tricks,  unstudied 
in  its  details,  the  easy  outflow  of  a  mind  nourished  on 
choice  and  repeated  reading,  with  the  English  Bible  as 
its  main  source;  not  avoiding  allusion  to  himself,  but 
quickly  mounting  with  the  subject  to  universal  application; 
not  deficient  in  grace,  yet  on  the  whole  massive,  orderly, 
and  neglectful  of  lighter  emotions.  In  private  life  Webster 


372  The  Nineteenth  Century 

was  genial.  He  was  fond  of  the  open  country,  delighting 
in  the  rod  and  gun.  "Black  Dan"  he  was  familiarly 
called,  on  account  of  his  deep-set,  lustrous  eyes,  over 
shadowing  brows,  and  commanding,  swarthy  countenance. 
The  proportions  and  majesty  of  his  head  were  in  keeping 
with  the  dignity  of  his  figure. 

William  Lloyd  Garrison. — With  the  main  agitator  of 
the  Abolitionist  movement  there  was  no  thought  of  com 
promise.  Orator  as  well  as  writer,  William  Lloyd  Garrison 
(1805—1879),  though  the  herald  of  self-restraint,  and  preach 
ing  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance,  carried  his  principles  to 
their  extreme  length.  He  condemned  the  churches  for 
their  tolerance  of  slavery,  and  disliked  the  Constitution 
for  permitting  it.  He  favoured  ending  the  Union,  if  the 
national  disease  could  be  removed  by  amputation.  He 
could  not  tolerate  gradual  treatment  or  the  doubtful 
promise  of  an  incomplete  cure. 

Charles  Sumner. — Garrison's  brave,  handsome,  and  gifted 
friend,  and  the  friend  of  Longfellow,  Charles  Sumner 
(1811-1878),  was  trained  in  the  law  under  Judge  Story.  It 
was  partly  through  Whittier's  influence  that  he  entered 
politics,  but  when  he  succeeded  Webster  in  the  Senate 
his  place  as  a  leader  was  assured.  The  infamous  assault 
upon  him  by  Brooks  in  1856,  during  the  debate  over  the 
affairs  of  Kansas,  left  Sumner  incapacitated  until  1859. 
When  "the  eloquent  vacant  chair"  was  filled  again,  crowds 
gathered  whenever  announcement  was  made  that  Sumner 
would  speak.  His  intellect  was  not  equal  to  that  of  his 
illustrious  predecessor;  yet  his  sound  judgment  and  win 
ning  personality,  aided  by  a  captivating  delivery,  put  him, 
in  the  Senate,  at  the  head  of  the  new  Republican  party. 
His  "Orations"  have  been  published  in  eight  volumes. 

Thaddeus  Stevens. — While  Sumner  was  in  the  Senate, 
Thaddeus  Stevens  (1792-1868),  a  less  admirable  char- 


tors  and  the  Divines          373 


acter,  led  the  Republicans  in  the  House.  He  also  was  a 
bitter  foe  of  slavery,  and  was  urgent  with  Lincoln  to 
emancipate  the  negroes.  "A  clear,  logical,  and  powerful 
debater,"  he  was  feared  for  his  mordant  invective.  In 
fluential  with  the  rank  and  file  of  politicians,  he  rejoiced 
in  the  borrowed  title  of  the  "Great  Commoner." 

Wendell  Phillips. — Of  course  the  trumpet  of  the  Aboli 
tionists  was  the  impassioned  Wendell  Phillips  (1811-1884), 
ever  supporting  the  hands  of  Garrison,  and  similarly 
uncompromising.  On  graduating  from  Harvard  in  1831, 
he  studied  law;  but  he  refused  to  engage  in  its  practice, 
since  this  would  entail  his  swearing  to  uphold  a  national 
Constitution  which  tolerated  slavery.  He  was  a  master 
of  sarcasm,  irony,  and  epigram,  of  choice  and  varied  wit; 
serene  in  the  presence  of  his  enemies,  capturing  and  hold 
ing  their  attention.  When  the  Civil  War  was  over,  and 
the  cause  of  Abolition  won,  he  turned  to  the  remedy  of 
other  evils,  speaking  in  favour  of  woman's  rights,  and 
championing  labour  reform.  In  the  guise  of  a  general  re- 
dresser  of  wrongs  he  lost  prestige  as  well  as  something  of 
his  own  sense  of  dignity. 

Rufus  Choate. — The  most  famous  of  a  famous  family, 
Rufus  Choate  (1799-1859)  was  distinguished  for  his  pleading 
at  the  bar,  his  literary  attainments,  and,  during  the  time 
that  he  was  there  (1841-1845),  the  exercise  of  his  talents 
in  the  Senate.  A  pupil  of  no  less  a  lawyer  than  William 
Wirt,  Choate,  in  his  unrivalled  success  with  juries,  and 
his  stirring  if  florid  occasional  addresses,  was  indebted 
not  alone  to  his  natural  ardour  and  personal  magnetism, 
but  also  to  thorough  analysis  and  unremitting  preparation. 
His  eulogy  on  Webster  at  Dartmouth  College,  July  27, 
1853,  was  the  tribute  of  an  eminent  graduate  of  that  in 
stitution  to  the  noblest. 

Stephen   A.    Douglas. — Stephen  Arnold  Douglas  (1813- 


374  The  Nineteenth  Century 

1861)  was  born  in  Brandon,  Vermont,  studied  law  in  Can- 
andaigua,  New  York,  continued  this  study  in  Ohio,  and 
proceeded  thence  to  Illinois  to  teach,  and  to  practise 
his  calling  of  lawyer.  He  was  in  the  United  States  Senate 
from  1847  to  1 86 1,  doing  his  best  to  avert  the  Civil  War. 
In  1858  and  1860  the  "Little  Giant"  boldly  appeared 
before  audiences  in  the  South  and  denied  the  right  of 
any  state  to  secede  from  the  Union.  His  speech  on  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  (1854)  shows  his  attitude  of  laissez- 
faire  in  the  matter  of  slavery.  When  he  matched  his  wits 
with  Lincoln  in  their  joint  debate,  he  unintentionally 
hastened  his  antagonist's  advance  toward  the  Presidency. 

William  H.  Seward. — Cautious,  clear,  incisive,  firm  in 
his  grasp  of  the  laws  of  political  history,  William  Henry 
Seward  (1811-1872)  foresaw  what  Douglas  could  not,  that 
the  struggle  with  slavery  was  an  irrepressible  conflict. 
In  New  York  State,  of  which  he  became  Governor,  he 
was  the  untiring  enemy  of  political  opportunism  in  every 
shape.  An  unsuccessful  aspirant  in  1860  for  the  Presi 
dency,  he  eventually  overcame  his  lack  of  confidence  in 
Lincoln,  and  as  Lincoln's  Secretary  of  State  was  of  in 
estimable  service  in  maintaining  our  relations  with 
England  during  the  course  of  the  Rebellion.  His  "Diplo 
matic  History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America"  was  published 
posthumously. 

Salmon  P.  Chase. — Lincoln's  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Salmon  Portland  Chase  (1808-1873)  ,was  not  a  facile  speaker, 
but,  tall  and  commanding,  one  of  the  handsomest  men  in 
the  Senate,  he  was  both  dignified  and  impressive.  Like 
Choate,  he  graduated  from  Dartmouth  and  studied  with 
William  Wirt.  As  a  practising  lawyer  he  engaged  (1837) 
in  the  defence  of  persons  on  trial  for  alleged  violation  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Act;  in  the  debate  upon  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill  (1854)  he  advocated  "free  soil,"  and  in- 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines          375 

sisted  upon  "  the  absolute  divorce  of  the  General  Govern 
ment  "  from  all  connection  with  slavery.  He  was  a  Senator 
both  before  and  after  holding  the  governorship  of  Ohio, 
and  again  just  before  Lincoln  summoned  him  into  the 
Cabinet.  In  1864  he  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  a  position  which  he  honoured  till  his  death. 

Edward  Everett. — In  the  delivery  of  Edward  Everett 
(1794-1865)  "there  was  nothing  in  manner,  person,  dress, 
gesture,  tone,  accent,  or  emphasis  too  minute  for  his  at 
tention."  From  boyhood  he  had  the  gift  of  eloquence, 
which  he  developed  by  assiduous  practice.  Taking  high 
honours  at  Harvard  when  but  seventeen,  he  went  into  the 
Unitarian  ministry,  and  began  preaching  at  the  Brattle 
Street  Church  in  Boston,  with  immediate  success.  Invited 
to  assume  a  chair  at  Harvard,  he  studied  abroad  in  pre 
paration,  and  then  from  1819  to  1825  taught  Greek.  He 
left  his  professorship  to  become  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  Ten  years  later  he  was  elected  Gover 
nor  of  Massachusetts.  In  1841  General  Harrison  ap 
pointed  him  Minister  to  England ;  on  his  return  he  accepted 
the  presidency  of  Harvard.  He  succeeded  Webster  as 
Secretary  of  State  under  Fillmore;  and  in  the  national 
election  of  1860,  representing  the  forces  that  desired  a 
compromise  between  North  and  South,  he  was  candidate 
for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  During  his  stay 
in  the  Senate  Everett  also  was  heard  on  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill.  His  orations  were  published  in  four  volumes. 
His  "Lecture  on  the  Character  of  Washington"  (1856), 
frequently  repeated,  and  his  "Eulogy  on  Webster"  (1859) 
were  among  his  most  splendid  efforts.  He  made  a  re 
markable  address  at  Gettysburg,  though  it  now  seems 
academic  beside  that  of  Lincoln  on  the  same  occasion. 

Abraham  Lincoln. — For  a  manual  of  literature  the 
essential  thing  in  the  life  of  President  Lincoln  (1809-1865) 


376  The  Nineteenth  Century 

is  the  ennoblement  that  went  on  in  his  eloquence,  as  his 
character  developed  under  the  increasing  gravity  and  ten 
sion  of  his  public  career,  and  as  his  individual  spirit  be 
came  more  and  more  identified  with  the  agonising  soul 
of  a  nation.  The  simplicity  and  directness  of  his  mental 
operations  are  apparent  in  any  of  his  earlier  letters  and 
speeches ;  they  were  sufficiently  evident  to  those  who  heard 
his  debate  with  Douglas.  But  his  utterance  gained  in 
dignity  and  closeness  of  texture  when  his  native  impulses 
for  good  became  free  from  idiosyncrasy,  and  when  his 
innate  moral  Tightness  grew  into  a  deep  and  conscious 
religion.  In  all  literature  there  are  few  things  more  sig 
nificant  than  the  chastening  of  style  that  accompanied  the 
chastening  of  Lincoln's  personality.  There  is  a  noticeable 
difference  even  between  the  manner  of  his  first  and  that  of 
his  second  inaugural  address.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
pronounced  his  speech  at  the  dedication  of  the  National 
Cemetery  on  the  battlefield  of  Gettysburg,  November  19, 
1863.  There,  devoid  of  all  pretence  to  rhetorical  artifice, 
yet  in  the  perfection  of  English  style,  Lincoln  gave  to  the 
world  a  masterpiece  of  literature,  issuing  as  it  were  from 
the  life-blood  of  the  people;  a  masterpiece  in  which  art 
and  life  are  married,  and  imaginative  and  literal  truth 
are  become  one  flesh.  Says  Mr.  Bryce: 

That  famous  Gettysburg  speech  is  the  best  example  one  could 
desire  of  the  characteristic  quality  of  Lincoln's  eloquence.  It  is 
a  short  speech.  It  is  wonderfully  terse  in  expression.  It  is  quiet, 
so  quiet  that  at  the  moment  it  did  not  make  upon  the  audience, 
an  audience  wrought  up  by  a  long  and  highly-decorated  harangue 
from  one  of  the  prominent  orators  of  the  day,  an  impression  at  all 
commensurate  to  that  which  it  began  to  make  as  soon  as  it  was  read 
over  America  and  Europe.  There  is  in  it  not  a  touch  of  what  we 
call  rhetoric,  or  of  any  striving  after  effect.  Alike  in  thought 
and  in  language  it  is  simple,  plain,  direct.  But  it  states  certain 
truths  and  principles  in  phrases  so  aptly  chosen  and  so  forcible, 
that  one  feels  as  if  those  truths  could  have  been  conveyed  in  no 
other  words,  and  as  if  this  deliverance  of  them  were  made  for  all 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         377 

time.  Words  so  simple  and  so  strong  could  have  come  only  from 
one  who  had  meditated  so  long  on  the  primal  facts  of  American 
history  and  popular  government  that  the  truths  those  facts  taught 
him  had  become  like  the  truths  of  mathematics  in  their  clearness, 
their  breadth,  and  their  precision. 

Miscellaneous  and  Later  Orators. — It  is  obvious  that 
the  lives  of  many  ante-bellum  orators  overlapped  upon 
the  era  of  Reconstruction;  and  the  fifty  years  of  political 
activity  since  the  Civil  War  have  brought  forth  an  ever 
growing  number  of  men  concerned  in  affairs  of  state. 
However,  there  are  few  in  this  last  to  compare  in  elo 
quence  with  those  of  the  preceding  half-century.  Among 
recognised  orators  a  quieter  tone  on  the  whole  has  pre 
vailed  ;  not  altogether  that  of  Lincoln,  nor  yet  that  char 
acteristic  of  the  best  speakers  in  the  time  of  Madison 
and  the  younger  Adams;  nevertheless  marking  an  im 
provement  upon  the  flowery  and  pedantic  effusions  of  an 
intermediate  age  represented  by  Choate,  Winthrop,  and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  Everett.  The  passage  of  laws  and 
the  expediting  of  other  public  business  have  come  to  de 
pend  more  upon  influence  and  effort  exerted  off  the  floor 
of  the  House  and  the  Senate,  and  less  upon  forensic  argu 
ment  and  persuasion.  With  the  enormous  growth  of  the 
population  and  the  corresponding  increase  in  the  size 
of  our  legislative  bodies,  public  orators  have  in  most 
cases  been  satisfied,  perforce,  with  a  local  reputation. 
The  following  are  chosen  miscellaneously. 

John  B.  Gough  (1817-1886)  was  an  English  editor,  who 
fell  a  victim  to  alcoholism,  and  being  rescued  from  hie 
habit  by  a  friend  of  temperance,  dedicated  himself  to  the 
cause  of  rescuing  others.  He  lectured  widely  in  America, 
enthralling  large  audiences  by  his  descriptions  of  the  ruin 
worked  by  alcoholic  beverages,  and  by  his  graphic  narra 
tives  of  lapsing  and  reformed  drunkards. 

George  William  Curtis  (1824-1892)  was  in  youth  (1842) 
attached  to  the  community  at  Brook  Farm.  On  return- 


378  The  Nineteenth  Century 

ing  from  studies  in  Berlin  and  Italy,  he  became  connected 
with  the  publishers  of  Putnam's  Magazine.  The  manage 
ment  of  this  periodical  failing,  Curtis  assumed  a  financial 
liability  for  which  he  was  not  legally  responsible,  and 
spent  twenty  years  in  lecturing,  to  pay  off  the  indebted 
ness.  He  was  noted  as  editor  of  Harper's  Monthly,  and 
as  a  writer  for  Harper's  Weekly  and  Harper's  Bazar.  He 
was  a  virile  speaker  on  civil-service  reform  and  other 
subjects  involving  the  national  welfare.  Wherever  he  went 
he  inculcated  high  political  ideals.  His  "Orations  and 
Addresses"  were  edited  by  Professor  Charles  Eliot 
Norton. 

James  G.  Blaine  (1830-1893),  a  Pennsylvanian,  com 
menced  life  as  an  editor  in  Maine,  became  a  member  of 
the  State  Legislature  there,  and  thence  proceeded  to 
Congress.  He  made  a  brilliant  record  as  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  (1869-1875).  In  1876  he  was 
appointed  United  States  Senator  from  Maine.  Several 
times  a  Presidential  possibility,  he  was  the  Republican 
nominee  in  1884,  when  he  was  unexpectedly  defeated  by 
Cleveland.  Elaine's  speech  on  the  remonetisation  of  silver 
(1878)  has  been  often  cited.  He  was  clear  and  forcible, 
save  for  a  slight  lisp,  but  his  character  was  not  such  as 
to  force  conviction  home. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  space  allotted  to  proceed  further 
with  recent  or  contemporary  orators  in  political  or  secular 
life.  One  ought  not  to  neglect  such  men  as  Carl  Schurz 
(1829-1906)  or  Bourke  Cockran  (born  in  1854),  or  among 
the  last  few  presidents,  Benjamin  Harrison  (1833-1901). 
Mr.  Harrison,  an  astute  lawyer,  could,  on  short  notice, 
and  seemingly  without  effort,  deliver  the  choicest  of  ad 
dresses,  well  turned,  fluent,  and  of  a  convenient  length. 
An  account  of  American  political  eloquence  properly  ends 
with  a  reference  to  the  distinguished  statesman,  now  Presi 
dent,  and  after  Washington  and  Lincoln  the  third  among 
our  sons  of  light,  to  whom  this  volume  is  dedicated.  From 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         379 

the  most  conspicuous  of  public  orators  at  the  present  day, 
we  return  to  the  early  divines  and  theologians. 

American  Divines. — In  his  "Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit" — "from  the  Early  Settlement  of  this  Country  to 
the  Close  of  the  Year  1855"— the  Reverend  William  B. 
Sprague  (1795-1875)  collected  the  biographies  of  thirteen 
hundred  or  more  divines  who  had  earned  as  he  thought 
a  lasting  memorial.1  "From  the  commencement  of  this 
work,"  he  observes,  "I  have  been  quite  aware  that  nothing 
pertaining  to  it  involves  more  delicacy  than  the  selection 
of  its  subjects,  and  that  no  degree  of  care  and  impartiality 
can  be  a  full  security  against  mistakes."  Far  more  difficult 
is  the  matter  of  selection,  when  in  a  sketch  of  barely  a 
dozen  pages  we  try  to  include  the  names  of  those  who, 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  have  most  deeply  wrought 
upon  the  private  life  of  our  citizens.  The  separation  of 
church  and  state  in  America  renders  all  the  wider  the 
ordinary  cleft  between  public  and  private  life,  and  the 
multiplicity  of  religious  sects  still  further  tends  to  keep 
the  eloquence  and  motive  force  of  great  spiritual  leaders 
from  becoming  generally  known.  Even  among  those 
whose  power  and  fame  have  overleaped  the  confines  of  their 
own  parish  or  denomination,  our  choice  is  necessarily 
limited  to  a  scanty  few. 

Clergymen  as  Educators. — The  influence  of  notable 
preachers — not  to  speak  of  the  clergy  as  a  whole — in 

1  In  nine  volumes,  New  York,  1857-1869.  For  the  section  en 
titled  "The  Orators  and  the  Divines,"  the  following  works,  among 
others,  have  also  been  consulted :  "American  Eloquence,  a  Collection 
of  Speeches  and  Addresses  by  the  Most  Eminent  Orators  of  Amer 
ica,"  etc.,  by  Frank  Moore,  two  volumes,  New  York,  1895  (pub 
lished  1857);  "American  Orations,"  etc.,  edited  by  Alexander 
Johnston,  re-edited  by  J.  A.  Woodburn,  four  volumes,  1896-1897; 
"The  Clergy  in  American  Life  and  Letters,"  by  .D.  D.  Addison, 
1900;  "A  Manual  of  American  Literature,"  by  John  S.  Hart,  1878. 


380  The  Nineteenth  Century 

American  life  is  incalculable.  Outside  of  the  church  and 
the  home,  it  has  been  most  evident  in  higher  education; 
until  a  short  time  since,  educational  leadership  was  vested, 
as  it  should  be,  in  the  ministers  of  religion.  As  significant 
as  the  important  colleges  more  or  less  directly  founded 
for  the  training  of  pastors  is  the  long  line  of  college  presi 
dents  taken  from  the  ranks  of  that  profession.  At  Prince 
ton,  Jonathan  Edwards,  head  of  that  institution  (1758) 
during  the  last  month  of  his  life,  was  succeeded  ten  years 
later  by  John  Witherspoon  (1722—1794),  a  lineal  descendant 
of  John  Knox,  and  a  signer  of  the  American  Declaration 
of  Independence.  The  philosopher,  James  McCosh  (1811- 
1894),  was  eleventh  president  in  the  same  illustrious  succes 
sion.  At  Yale  we  have  such  men  as  the  poet,  Timothy 
D wight  (1752-1817),  and  his  grandson  of  the  same  name 
(born  in  1828);  Jeremiah  Day  (1773-1867),  mathematician 
and  commentator  on  Edwards;  Theodore  Dwight  Woolsey 
(1801-1889),  classical  scholar  and  authority  on  international 
law,  under  whose  presidency  was  trained  a  generation  of 
organisers  to  guide  the  affairs  of  newer  universities;  and 
Noah  Porter  (1811-1892),  whose  treatise  on  "The  Human 
Intellect"  became  a  general  text-book.  At  Union  College 
was  Eliphalet  Nott  (1773-1866),  who,  during  an  adminis 
tration  of  sixty-two  years,  manifested  consummate  wis 
dom  in  the  management  of  students.  On  the  death  of 
Hamilton  at  the  hands  of  Aaron  Burr,  Nott  eloquently 
attacked  the  barbarous  practice  of  duelling.  In  his  "Lec 
tures  on  Temperance"  (1823),  he  assisted  the  vigorous 
movement  of  Lyman  Beecher  and  others  against  "even  the 
common  use  of  ardent  spirits."  At  Harvard  was  the  ver 
satile  Edward  Everett  (1794-1865),  to  mention  none  of 
his  predecessors.  At  Brown  was  Francis  Wayland  (1796- 
1865),  the  metaphysician;  at  Williams,  Mark  Hopkins, 
in  his  teaching  a  veritable  Gamaliel.  Aside  from  presi 
dents,  the  peaceful  army  of  college  instructors  chosen  from 
the  ministry  is  beyond  reckoning — men  like  Frederick 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         381 

Henry  Hedge  (1805-1890),  a  Unitarian,  professor  of  the 
German  language  and  literature  at  Harvard,  author  of 
"Ways  of  the  Spirit,  and  Other  Essays,"  "Prose  Writers  of 
Germany,"  "Atheism  in  Philosophy,"  etc.;  or  Edwards 
Amasa  Park  (1808-1900),  descended,  as  his  first  name 
suggests,  from  a  celebrated  stock.  Park  was  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Amherst  College,  and  afterward  professor  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  a  hymnologist 
as  well  as  a  theologian,  a  biographer,  as  in  his  "Life  of 
Nathanael  Emmons,"  and  a  contributor  to  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra.  He  had  an  individual,  curiously  periphrastic,  way 
of  putting  things. 

Divines  as  Special  Students. — Although  the  large  de 
nominations  of  the  Methodists  and  Baptists  have  not 
insisted  on  the  possession  of  learning  by  their  ministers, 
in  their  own  province  of  scholarship  American  clergymen, 
while  rarely  independent  of  foreign,  especially  German 
investigators,  have  undertaken  many  researches  of  much 
value.  Edward  Robinson  (1794-1863),  a  professor  at 
Andover  and  then  at  Union  Seminary,  made  a  harmony 
of  the  Gospels  in  Greek,  and  another  in  English,  compiled 
a  lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  and  wrote  on  the  to 
pography  of  the  Holy  Land.  In  this  he  assisted  the 
sagacious  missionary ,  Eli  Smith  (i8oi-i857),whose  long  resi 
dence  in  the  Orient  gave  him  peculiar  advantages  as  a 
Biblical  geographer.  Similar  advantages  were  enjoyed  by 
William  McClune  Thomson  (1806-1894),  and  bore  good  fruit 
in  "The  Land  and  the  Book"  (illustrations  of  the  Bible 
from  customs  and  scenery  in  the  East)  and  "The  Land  of 
Promise,  or  Travels  in  Modern  Palestine."  Nor  should 
the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Burmese  by  that 
great  apostle,  Adoniram  Judson  (1788-1850),  go  un- 
mentioned.  At  home,  George  Rapall  Noyes  (1798-1868), 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Harvard  Divinity  School,  trans 
lated  the  New  Testament  into  English.  Leonard  Bacon 


382  The  Nineteenth  Century 

(1802-1881),  pastor  of  the  Centre  Church  in  New  Haven, 
takes  rank  with  the  ecclesiastical  historians  for  his  "Genesis 
of  the  New  England  Churches."  Thomas  Jefferson  Conant 
(1802— 1 891),  of  the  same  generation,  a  Baptist,  was  a  Hebrew 
scholar  of  repute,  in  the  main  devoting  himself  to  studies 
on  the  Old  Testament,  and  editing  critical  texts  of  the 
Book  of  Job,  of  Proverbs,  of  Genesis,  and  of  the  Psalms. 
Thomas  F.  Curtis  (1815-1872),  President  of  Lewisburg  Uni 
versity,  Pennsylvania,  compiled  a  history  of  the  Baptist 
Church,  publishing  it  in  the  year,  1857,  when  Sprague 
began  to  issue  his  monumental  "Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit,"  already  referred  to.  Still  another  Baptist,  Horatio 
Balch  Hackett  (1808-1875),  for  thirty-one  years  professor  at 
Newton  Seminary,  and  for  five  at  Rochester,  made  himself 
an  authority  on  Christian  antiquities.  Henry  Boynton 
Smith  (1815-1877)  from  1854  to  1874  taught  the  subject 
of  systematic  theology  at  Union  Seminary;  he  is  important 
among  the  church  historians — not  so  important,  of  course, 
as  the  indefatigable  Philip  Schaff  (1819-1893).  Born  in 
Switzerland,  educated  in  Germany,  and  recommended  by 
the  most  distinguished  German  theologians,  Schaff  in  1844 
accepted  a  call  from  this  country  to  the  Seminary  at 
Mercersburg,  Pennsylvania;  here  he  quickly  established 
his  reputation  as  an  encyclopedist  of  religious  knowledge. 
His  greatest  work  was  an  edition,  thoroughly  revised,  of 
Lange's  "Commentary  on  the  Bible."  Professor  William 
Greenough  Thayer  Shedd  (1820-1894),  who  taught  English 
literature  in  the  University  of  Vermont,  from  there  mi 
grated  to  the  chair  of  Biblical  literature  in  Union  Seminary 
(1863-1890).  Besides  a  "History  of  Christian  Doctrine," 
and  other  theological  works,  he  published  an  edition,  which 
has  not  yet  been  improved  upon,  of  the  works  of  Coleridge. 
William  Henry  Green  (1825-1900),  of  the  Theological  Semi 
nary  at  Princeton,  an  Orientalist,  was  a  frequent  writer  for 
The  Princeton  Review.  Crawford  Howell  Toy  (born  in 
1836),  since  1890  professor  of  Hebrew  and  related  Ian- 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         383 

guages  in  the  Harvard  Divinity  School,  is  the  author  of 
meritorious  published  researches,  including  a  work  on 
"The  Religion  of  Israel"  (1892)  and  a  commentary  on  the 
Book  of  Proverbs.  If  Charles  Augustus  Briggs  (born  in 
1841)  had  preserved  all  the  objectivity  of  a  scientific  his 
torian,  and  not  turned  controversialist,  he  probably  would 
not  have  been  subjected  to  trial  by  the  Presbyterians 
on  the  charge  of  heresy.  To  his  studies  in  Biblical  history 
and  the  growth  of  dogma  has  often  been  attached  the 
badly  chosen  term,  "Higher  Criticism,"  that  misnomer 
for  the  historical  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  A  severe 
loss  to  American  scholarship  has  recently  come  through 
the  death  of  Alexander  Viets  Griswold  Allen  (1841—1908), 
biographer  of  Jonathan  Edwards  and  Phillips  Brooks,  and 
author  of  "The  Continuity  of  Christian  Thought"  (1884) 
and  "Christian  Institutions"  (1897).  In  him  the  scholar 
became  the  constructive  artist. 

Writers  of  Hymns. — Between  the  publication  of  "The 
Bay  Psalm  Book  "  (1640)  and  the  revision  of  Watts'  version 
of  the  Psalms  by  Joel  Barlow  and  by  the  elder  Dwight  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  sacred  poetry  in  America 
underwent  much  refinement.  From  Dwight  and  his 
generation  down,  the  writers  of  hymns  have  been  many 
and  able.  Henry  Ustick  Onderdonk  (1789-1858),  William 
Augustus  Muhlenberg  (1796-1877),  George  Washington 
Doane  (1799-1859),  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  of  New 
Jersey  at  the  age  of  thirty-three,  Leonard  Bacon  (1802- 
1881),  George  W.  Bethune  (1805-1862),  Samuel  Francis 
Smith  (1808-1895),  George  Dufneld  (1818-1888),  Samuel 
Longfellow  (1819-1892),  above  all,  Ray  Palmer  (1808- 
1887),  are  a  few  of  the  most  eminent. 

Miscellaneous  Preachers. — Samuel  Hopkins. — A  disciple 
of  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  institutor  of  the  Hopkinsian  form 
of  divinity  (1721-1803)  sought,  according  to  Hildreth,  "to 


384  The  Nineteenth  Century 

add  to  the  five  points  of  Calvinism  the  rather  heterogeneous 
ingredient  that  holiness  consists  in  pure,  disinterested 
benevolence,  and  that  all  regard  for  self  is  necessarily 
sinful."  He  inculcated  the  doctrine  of  the  free  agency  of 
sinners.  A  forerunner  of  the  Garrisons,  Whittiers,  and 
Sumners,  he  was  an  early  and  persistent  foe  of  negro 
slavery. 

Nathanael  Emmons. — A  typical  predecessor  of  the  nine 
teenth  century,  whose  great  age  brought  him  far  into  it, 
was  Nathanael  Emmons  (1745-1840),  of  Connecticut,  and  of 
Wrentham,  Massachusetts.  He  wished  to  be  "a  consist 
ent  Calvinist,"  yet  to  harmonise  a  difficult  creed  with  the 
truths  of  common  experience.  He  was  an  excellent 
reasoner  on  the  evidences  of  moral  government,  establishing 
unexpected  chains  of  inference,  and  from  gladly  accepted 
premises  leading  his  hearers  to  less  pleasant  but  unavoidable 
conclusions.  "He  was  skilled,"  says  Park,  "in  disen 
tangling  a  theory  from  its  adscit.itious  matter,  and  scanning 
it  alone."  "He  made  but  few  gestures;  his  voice  was  not 
powerful;  but  men  listened  to  him  with  intense  curiosity, 
and  often  with  awe."  Emmons  had  his  own  conception  of 
eloquence:  "I  read  deep,  well-written  tragedies  for  the 
sake  of  real  improvement  in  the  art  of  preaching.  They 
appeared  to  me  the  very  best  books  to  teach  true  elo 
quence."  Again:  "Style  is  only  the  frame  to  hold  our 
thoughts.  It  is  like  the  sash  of  a  window:  a  heavy  sash 
will  obscure  the  light."  And  once  more:  "First,  have 
something  to  say;  second,  say  it."  His  writings — essays, 
sermons  at  ordinations,  sermons  at  installations,  funeral 
sermons,  thanksgiving  sermons,  "A  Sermon  on  Sacred 
Music"  (1806) — are  numberless. 

Henry  Ernst  Muhlenberg, — Of  a  different  but  well-known 
type  was  the  son  (1753-1815)  of  the  German- American 
Henry  Melchior  Muhlenberg  (1742-1787).  Henry  Ernst 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         385 

was  sent  abroad  while  a  boy,  studied  at  Halle,  returned, 
became  a  pastor  among  the  Germans  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  finally  died  at  Lancaster  in  that  State.  He  was  en 
dowed  with  an  exceptional  physique,  walking  with  ease 
from  Lancaster  to  Philadelphia,  a  distance  of  sixty  miles. 
Discursive  in  his  studies — he  was  an  Oriental  scholar  and 
a  botanist — he  was  tolerant  in  his  belief,  clinging  to  the 
fundamental  truths  of  Christianity.  In  his  discourses,  he 
took  the  familiar  attitude  of  a  parent  addressing  his 
children. 

Alexander  Campbell. — The  founder  (1788-1866)  of  the 
sect  known  to  the  rest  of  the  world  as  the  Campbellites, 
a  man  of  prodigious  energy,  was  without  question  one 
of  the  remarkable  spirits  of  his  time.  His  writings,  over 
fifty  volumes,  represent  but  a  moiety  of  his  labours:  he 
built  printing-presses  in  the  interests  of  his  movement  for 
religious  reform;  he  debated  in  public  with  all  comers — 
for  example,  in  1829  with  the  infidel,  Robert  Owen.  Self- 
possessed  on  the  platform,  he  indulged  in  little  action, 
and  he  spared  his  voice.  But  his  distinct  and  beautiful 
enunciation  expected  and  received  attention,  his  audience 
listening,  as  to  a  master,  in  perfect  silence. 

William  Ellery  Channing. — Although  "he  lacks  critical 
acumen,"  "lacks  also  the  sentiment  of  great  originality," 
"lacks  that  which  America  has  so  far  lacked — high  intel 
lectual  culture,  critical  knowledge,"  "does  not  know  the 
general  result  of  what  is  known  to  his  age,"  still  Channing 
(1780-1842),  in  the  words  of  Renan,  "has  been  unquestion 
ably  the  most  complete  representative  of  that  exclusively 
American  experiment — of  religion  without  mystery,  of 
rationalism  without  criticism,  of  intellectual  culture  without 
elevated  poetry — which  seems  to  be  the  ideal  to  which  the 
religion  of  the  United  States  aspires."  An  exemplary 
student  at  school  and  college  (Harvard),  Channing  went 
25 


386  The  Nineteenth  Century 

to  the  South  as  a  private  tutor.  His  path  being  deflected 
into  the  ministry,  he  returned  to  New  England,  and  was 
installed  (1803)  in  the  Federal  Street  Church  at  Boston. 
In  this  church  he  was  active  for  twenty  years,  and  he  was 
at  least  the  nominal  head  of  it  for  forty.  His  health  was 
delicate,  and  his  capacity  for  continued  exertion  limited. 
Channing's  religion  might  be  described  as  a  form  of  ethics, 
allied  to  the  political  doctrines  of  Rousseau,  too  simple  and 
theoretical  for  common  life,  and  in  the  main  salutary  so 
far  as  it  was  a  generous  reaction  against  the  harsher  tenets 
of  Calvin.  The  severity  of  Calvinism,  that  "vulgar  and 
frightful  theology,"  in  his  eyes  inevitably  led  to  gloomy 
superstition.  "God  is  good,"  he  kept  repeating,  and 
human  nature  in  its  origin  also  good.  "He  .  .  .  fell  in 
with  those  who  consider  the  human  race  to  be  actually 
degenerated  by  the  abuse  of  free  will.  In  Jesus  Christ  he 
recognised  a  sublime  being,  who  had  wrought  a  crisis  in  the 
condition  of  humanity,  had  renewed  the  moral  sense,  and 
touched  with  saving  power  the  fountains  of  good  that  were 
hidden  in  the  depths  of  the  human  heart."  Channing 
wrote  no  books;  his  literary  remains  consist  of  essays,  ser 
mons,  and  addresses.  His  "Discourse  on  the  Fall  of  Bona 
parte"  (1814),  his  lecture  on  "Self -Culture,"  and  his 
"Address  on  West  India  Emancipation"  (1842)  display 
various  aspects  of  a  beautiful  and  courageous  personality. 

Horace  Bushnell. — "I  have  never  been  a  great  agitator, 
never  pulled  a  wire  to  get  the  will  of  men,  never  did  a 
politic  thing,"  said  Bushnell  (1802-1876).  He  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1827;  from  1833  until  1859,  when  he  retired  on 
account  of  ill-health,  he  had  charge  of  the  North  Church 
in  Hartford,  Connecticut.  Thereafter  he  devoted  his  time 
to  the  preparation  of  special  sermons  and  addresses  and 
to  researches  in  American  history  and  the  history  of  his 
own  State.  He  took  a  vital  interest  in  political  questions. 
Bushnell  was  a  clear  and  independent  thinker,  without 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         387 

bias,  not  given  to  controversy,  none  the  less  eloquent  and 
persuasive.  His  sermons  were  collected  and  widely  circu 
lated.  The  problems  of  religious  experience,  of  suffering 
and  evil,  and  of  education  he  attempted  to  solve  in  "Nature 
and  the  Supernatural,"  "The  Vicarious  Sacrifice,"  and 
"Christian  Nurture."  In  the  last-named  work  he  ob 
jected  to  the  doctrine  of  natural  depravity,  contending  for 
a  gradual  development  in  the  child  of  the  religious  senti 
ment  and  the  higher  imagination,  as  against  a  sudden  and 
crucial  "conversion."  Among  Congregationalists  the  sup 
posed  latitude  of  his  theological  opinions  involved  him  in 
the  charge  of  a  leaning  toward  Unitarianism. 

Theodore  Parker. — In  his  day,  Theodore  Parker  (1810- 
1860)  was  considered  the  most  daring  of  rationalists,  and 
so  "advanced,"  as  we  now  call  it,  in  his  beliefs  or  disbeliefs 
as  to  be  outside  the  pale  of  Christianity.  Present-day 
rationalists  find  him  a  congenial  spirit.  He  was  a  man  of 
undoubted  genius,  caustic,  flashing,  vehement,  incessant 
in  labour,  dying  early  from  sheer  exhaustion.  His  col 
lected  works  in  fourteen  volumes  (edited  by  Cobbe)  reveal 
the  nature  of  his  industry.  He  was  unweariedly  accurate 
in  detail,  being  determined  to  leave  no  pebble  unturned  in 
his  search  for  truth.  His  sermon  on  "The  Transient  and 
the  Permanent  in  Christianity"  (1841)  and  "A  Discourse 
of  Matters  Pertaining  to  Religion"  (1842)  gave  evidence 
of  his  departure  from  the  accepted  form  of  Unitarianism. 
In  1845  he  openly  broke  away,  regarding  the  Church  as  an 
unnecessary  organisation.  In  general,  his  criticism  was 
destructive,  and  his  attention  to  detail  not  balanced  by 
powers  of  synthesis.  His  own  convictions  like  iron  and 
brooking  no  denial,  he  disregarded  the  tenderest  feelings 
of  other  men,  and  in  a  mistaken  sense  of  duty  would  trample 
underfoot  those  things  which  his  neighbour  might  hold 
most  sacred.  His  intellect  flourished  at  the  expense  of  his 
imagination,  and  his  want  of  perspective  resolves  itself  into 


388  The  Nineteenth  Century 

a  defect  of  taste,  all  the  more  injurious  through  the  violence 
of  his  affections.  This  man,  most  cordially  hated  and 
feared  by  those  whom  he  opposed,  most  ardently  loved  by 
his  friends,  would  shed  tears  like  a  child  when  he  met  with 
a  trivial  act  of  kindness. 

The  Beechers. — Lyman  Beecher  (1775-1863)  represents 
the  other  extreme,  of  traditional  orthodoxy,  and  the  reac 
tion  against  the  trend  of  Unitarianism.  He  was  a  stern 
and  virile  personality,  rigorous  in  habit,  and  in  his  ex 
pectation  of  righteousness  in  others,  withal  friendly  and 
benign.  His  son,  Henry  Ward  Beecher  (1813-1887),  ac 
cording  to  the  testimony  of  the  daughter  and  sister,  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe,  as  a  child  was  deficient  in  verbal  memory — 
a  thing  which  he  never  outgrew, — diffident,  sensitive, 
thick  and  indistinct  in  his  speech.  In  the  midst  of  a 
talented  family  that  was  much  given  to  theological  argu 
ment,  his  powers  were  gradually  developed.  At  Laurence- 
burg,  Ohio,  his  first  charge,  he  was  sexton  as  well  as  preacher. 
He  came  before  the  public  through  his  defence  of  the  negro 
in  The  Cincinnati  journal.  At  Indianapolis  his  reputation 
grew,  for  his  independent  spirit  and  direct,  informal  style 
proved  very  attractive;  and  when  he  had  been  called  to 
Plymouth  Church  in  Brooklyn,  the  people  crowded  over 
from  New  York  to  hear  him.  Beecher  studied  every-day 
life  in  the  streets  and  shops  of  the  metropolis ;  his  discourses 
on  popular  topics,  good  government  and  the  like,  uncon 
ventionally  treated,  gave  his  audiences  what  they  liked. 
His  sympathies  were  non-sectarian,  he  had  his  finger  on 
the  pulse  of  every  gathering,  his  well  of  common  sense 
was  overflowing,  and  he  was  fearless  to  the  point  of  au 
dacity,  carrying  the  art  of  the  mimic  into  the  very  pulpit. 
His  preaching,  in  fact,  sometimes  bordered  upon  dangerous 
self-assertion.  He  rose  to  eminence,  as  Bacon  might  say, 
by  a  combination  of  good  with  questionable  arts.  But  the 
mixture  was  mainly  good.  In  Beecher's  discussion  of 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         389 

Slavery,  Calhoun,  who  was  not  easily  deceived,  saw  that 
the  preacher  knew  how  to  get  to  the  bottom  of  his  subject. 
His  good-humour,  and  pluck,  and  immense  patriotism 
before  hostile  crowds  in  England  (1863)  greatly  helped 
to  deter  that  nation  from  recognising  the  Southern  Con 
federacy. 

Theorists  on  Pulpit  Eloquence. — Beecher's  "Yale  Lec 
tures  on  Preaching"  disclose  how  large  an  element  there 
was  in  his  oratory  of  conscious  adaptation  of  means  to 
ends.  They  belong  to  an  extensive  and  interesting  branch 
of  American  literature,  to  which  Phillips  Brooks,  J.  A. 
Broadus,  E.  G.  Robinson,  R.  S.  Storrs,  J.  W.  Alexander,  and 
many  others  have  made  contributions.  James  Waddell 
Alexander  (1804-1859),  son  of  Archibald  Alexander  of 
Princeton  Seminary,  left  his  "Thoughts  on  Preaching"  to 
be  published  in  1864.  "The  Preparation  and  Delivery  of 
Sermons,"  by  John  Albert  Broadus  (1827-1895),  President 
of  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  represents 
the  theory  of  a  trainer  of  preachers,  himself  a  winning  orator 
with  a  consciously  developed  instinct:  "Everybody  who 
can  speak  effectively  knows  that  the  power  of  speaking  de 
pends  very  largely  upon  the  way  it  is  heard,  upon  the  sym 
pathy  one  succeeds  in  gaining  from  those  he  addresses." 
To  insure  sympathy — his  watchword, — Broadus  preached 
without  manuscript.  In  general,  as  here,  his  syntax  is  not 
finely  moulded.  With  these  might  be  mentioned  another 
clergyman,  Chauncey  Allen  Goodrich  (1790-1860),  for 
forty-three  years  professor  at  Yale,  whose  "Select  British 
Eloquence"  set  a  standard  of  illuminating  scholarship. 

Richard  Salter  Storrs. — Dr.  Storrs  (1821-1900),  de 
scended  from  a  line  of  clergymen,  was  from  1846  on  in 
high  repute  as  a  preacher  in  the  Church  of  the  Pilgrims, 
Brooklyn.  He  was  also  in  demand  as  a  lecturer,  and 
contributed  freely  to  the  Biblioiheca  Sacra  and  other 


39°  The  Nineteenth  Century 

periodicals.  His  "Conditions  of  Success  in  Preaching 
without  Notes"  partly  tells  the  secret  of  his  own  emi 
nence;  his  rich  voice,  distinct  utterance,  and  stately  bear 
ing  further  explain  it.  In  youth  a  student  of  the  law,  he 
caught  something  of  his  eloquence  from  Rufus  Choate. 
But  the  moral  elevation  of  character  in  Storrs  was  the 
ultimate  support  of  all  his  art. 

T.  De  Witt  Talmage. — In  Brooklyn,  where  he  preached 
from  1869  to  1894,  Thomas  De  Witt  Talmage  (1832- 
1902)  had  a  "Tabernacle,"  as  it  was  called,  to  which 
everyone  was  welcome,  and  which  commonly  was  filled 
by  an  audience  of  four  thousand.  In  1894  he  removed 
to  New  York.  For  twenty-nine  years  the  sermons  of 
Talmage  were  published  every  week,  latterly  in  countless 
journals;  they  have  had  an  immense  circulation,  not  alone 
in  his  own  country,  being  translated  into  many  foreign, 
even  Asiatic  languages.  It  is  possible  that  no  other 
preacher  in  the  world  has  during  life  enjoyed  so  extensive 
and  regular  a  following.  His  physical  activity  was  un 
bounded;  his  utterance  clear,  though  his  voice  was  not 
pleasing,  and  his  message  simple,  violent,  and  undiscrimi- 
natingly  conservative.  In  espousing  what  he  took  to  be 
orthodox,  he  was  hasty  and  inaccurate;  he  was  utterly 
careless,  too,  what  means  he  used  to  work  upon  his  hearers. 
To  the  cultured  his  writings  have  little  worth.  His  value 
to  the  state  and  the  great  world  is  not  so  easily  decided. 

Phillips  Brooks . — Phillips  Brooks  (183  5-1 893) ,  after  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  the  greatest  pulpit  orator  in  America  since 
the  Civil  War,  was  a  native  of  Boston,  nurtured  in  the  best 
traditions  of  New  England.  A  brilliant  and  popular  under 
graduate  at  Harvard,  he  strangely  enough  failed  in  his 
subsequent  brief  experience  in  teaching.  He  then  studied 
for  the  ministry,  at  the  Episcopal  Seminary  in  Alexandria, 
Virginia.  As  a  young  rector  in  Philadelphia,  he  showed 


The  Orators  and  the  Divines         391 

his  power  and  fearlessness  in  his  patriotic  sermons  during 
the  Rebellion.  "  In  their  relation  to  the  politics  of  the 
land,"  he  contended,  "the  great  vice  of  our  people  ...  is 
cowardice."  He  himself  dared  openly  to  lay  the  crime  of 
Lincoln's  martyrdom,  not  alone  upon  the  assassin,  but 
upon  the  supporters  of  slavery  in  the  South.  From  Phila 
delphia,  he  went  to  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  in  1869. 
Two  years  prior  to  his  death  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Massa 
chusetts.  "The  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching,"  delivered 
in  1877,  "constitute,"  says  Allen,  his  best  interpreter,  "the 
autobiography  of  Phillips  Brooks.  .  .  .  It  is  a  book  which 
owes  nothing  to  predecessors  in  the  same  field.  .  .  .  He 
confines  himself  to  preaching  as  he  had  experienced  its 
workings,  or  studied  its  method,  or  observed  its  power.  .  .  . 
The  book  captivates  the  reader,  simply  for  this  reason  alone, 
— the  transparency  of  the  soul  of  its  writer,  between  whom 
and  the  reader  there  intervenes  no  barrier."  This  was  the 
quality  also  of  his  sermons. 

He  stands  in  the  pulpit  [reported  an  observer]  smooth-faced,  full- 
voiced,  as  self-reliant  a  man  as  ever  occupied  such  a  station.  He 
indulges  in  few  gestures;  he  has  no  mannerisms.  If,  under  any 
circumstances,  he  might  realise  the  popular  conception  of  an  orator, 
he  does  not  betray  the  possibilities  here.  He  provokes  no  attention 
to  predominant  spirituality  by  inferior  vitality.  There  is  a  splendid 
harmony  of  strength,  bodily  and  mental,  which  prevents  the 
measurement  of  either.  It  is  only  when  he  is  out  of  his  desk  and 
level  with  his  audience  that  you  realise  his  stature.  In  the  lecture- 
room  or  crowded  street,  he  stands  like  Saul  among  the  people. 
The  well-balanced  head  and  strong  shoulders  draw  your  eyes  at 
once.  He  dresses  well,  lives  well,  and  holds  his  own  decidedly  in 
social  circles.  .  .  .  His  power  is  not  limited  to  his  church 
ministrations,  nor  is  he  making  himself  known  by  some  brilliant 
special  development.  It  is  the  whole  man — mentally,  morally, 
and  spiritually,  leader,  helper,  friend — which  is  attaining  such 
pre-eminence.  But  when  he  preaches,  you  are  carried  away  to 
the  need  of  men  and  of  your  own  shortcomings,  and  have  no  present 
consciousness  of  the  personality  of  the  speaker.  A  transparent 
medium  is  the  purest.  You  do  not  think  of  Phillips  Brooks  till 
Phillips  Brooks  gets  through  with  his  subject. 


392  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Brooks  was  a  wide  reader  and  a  careful  and  original 
student  of  church  history  and  theological  discussion;  he 
was  not  the  profound  and  searching  scholar  that  Renan 
vainly  sought  in  America.  He  had  a  roomy  mind,  a 
teeming  imagination,  and  a  heart  full  of  generosity,  energy, 
and  optimism.  He  lived  by  admiration,  hope,  and  love. 
His  ideas,  which  were  large  and  luminous,  although  they 
did  not  have  the  final  tempering  that  comes  from  pas 
sage  through  the  slow  fire  of  a  rigorous  critical  method, 
became  vital  from  sharing  in  his  warmth  and  purity  of 
sentiment. 

In  regard  to  his  intellectual  habits  and  methods  [remarks  Allen] 
one  thing  is  clear,  that  Phillips  Brooks  worked  through  the  poetic 
imagination  rather  than  by  the  process  of  dialectics,  although  he 
could  show  great  dialectic  subtlety  when  occasion  demanded. 
When  we  conjoin  this  power  of  the  poetic  imagination  and  his 
other  gifts,  the  "unparalleled  combination  of  intensity  of  feeling 
with  comprehensiveness  of  view  and  balance  of  judgment,"  we 
can  understand  how  he  could  quickly  penetrate  to  the  heart  of 
intellectual  systems,  how  a  hint  to  his  mind  was  like  a  volume  to 
others,  and  he  preferred  to  work  out  the  hint  in  his  own  way. 

VI.      THE  SCIENTISTS. 

General  Remarks. — The  beginnings  of  science  in  America 
date  from  colonial  days  and  have  been  touched  upon  by 
Professor  Tyler.  The  interest  of  Americans  in  science  has 
never  abated.  Readers  of  standard  scientific  literature 
are  numerous.  The  Scientific  American,  founded  in  1845, 
The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  founded  in  1872,  Science, 
dating  from  1883,  and  several  other  journals  of  science 
are  read  by  many  non-professional  persons.  The  various 
sciences  have,  in  the  last  quarter-century  at  least,  won  a 
place  of  prominence  in  our  college  curricula.  The  num 
ber  of  disinterested  scientific  observers  and  investigators 
has  always  been  large.  The  largest  scientific  organisa 
tion  in  the  United  States,  the  American  Association  for  the 


The  Scientists  393 

Advancement  of  Science,  which  developed  from  the  old 
Association  of  American  Geologists  and  Naturalists  in 
1847,  now  has  a  membership  of  over  five  thousand; 
and  in  addition  to  this  and  other  general  scientific  bodies 
there  is  for  workers  in  nearly  every  individual  science  a 
national  organisation,  meeting  regularly  and  publishing 
the  results  of  investigations.  In  almost  every  science 
America  has  produced  scholars  of  note;  in  some  she  has 
furnished  leaders  of  the  world. 

This  is  not,  of  course,  the  place,  even  if  the  writer 
were  competent  to  furnish  it,  for  a  narrative  of  American 
scientific  achievement.  We  can  only  touch  upon  a  few 
of  the  greater  names  in  mental  and  moral,  political  and 
legal,  ethnological  and  linguistic,  and  natural  and  physical 
science. 

Mental  and  Moral  Science. — It  cannot  be  said  that 
America  has  taken  a  place  of  pre-eminence  in  the  philo 
sophical  thought  of  the  nineteenth  century.  English, 
French,  and  German  savants  still  lead  in  this  realm  of 
thought.  Yet  American  philosophy  has  made  enormous 
strides  in  the  last  half-century  and  many  of  its  exponents 
have  won  universal  recognition.  Porter  and  McCosh  have 
expounded  the  views  of  the  Scottish  School;  German 
thought  has  been  elucidated  and  criticised  by  Harris, 
Bowne,  and  Royce;  the  writings  of  Draper,  Fiske,  and 
Schurman  on  the  evolutionary  theories  of  Darwin  and 
Spencer  are  well  known.  The  psychologists  Ladd,  Stanley 
Hall,  Baldwin,  Titchener,  and  James  have  international 
reputations.  In  the  number  and  equipment  of  her  psycho 
logical  laboratories  America  leads  the  world.  The  number 
of  periodicals  devoted  to  psychology,  ethics,  and  cognate 
sciences  is  considerable.  Philosophical  studies  enjoy  great 
favour  at  our  universities,  both  as  electives  and  as  required 
subjects.  Some  of  the  men  briefly  considered  below  are 
perhaps  more  famous  as  teachers  than  as  writers;  yet  all 


394  The  Nineteenth  Century 

have  left  their  mark  on  the  philosophical  thought  of  their 
day. 

Francis  Wayland. — Francis  Wayland  (1796-1865),  a 
Baptist  clergyman  and  for  twenty-eight  years  (1827-1855) 
president  of  Brown  University,  wrote  several  well-known 
works  on  moral  and  political  science.  After  graduating 
from  Union  College  in  1813,  he  studied  medicine  and 
began  practice  at  Troy,  New  York;  but  from  1816  on 
devoted  himself  to  the  ministry.  His  "Elements  of  Moral 
Science"  (1835),  his  greatest  work,  was  long  a  standard 
text-book.  "The  Elements  of  Political  Economy"  ap 
peared  in  1837;  "Limitations  of  Human  Reason,"  in 
1840;  "Thoughts  on  the  Present  Collegiate  System  of  the 
United  States,"  in  1842;  and  "Elements  of  Intellectual 
Philosophy,"  in  1854.  Wayland  is  most  important  as  a 
teacher  of  morals.  For  him  education  and  religion  went 
hand  in  hand.  Although  he  was  not  a  thinker  of  the 
highest  order,  his  treatises  were  lucid,  exact,  and  attrac 
tive.  He  was  one  of  the  great  educational  and  religious 
leaders  of  his  day. 

Mark  Hopkins. — Another  great  educator  was  Mark 
Hopkins  (1802-1887),  whose  birthplace  was  Stockbridge, 
Massachusetts,  and  who  graduated  from  Williams  College 
in  1824.  Like  Wayland,  he  first  practised  medicine,  then 
became  a  minister  and  teacher  of  moral  philosophy.  He 
was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Williams  for  fifty- 
seven  years,  and  president  from  1836  till  1872.  He 
wrote  "The  Influence  of  the  Gospel  in  Liberalising  the 
Mind"  (1831),  "The  Connexion  between  Taste  and  Mor 
als"  (1841),  "The  Evidences  of  Christianity"  (Lowell  In 
stitute  lectures,  1844) ,  "Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Reviews " 
(1847),  "Moral  Science"  (also  Lowell  lectures,  1862),  "The 
Law  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law"  (1869),  "An  Outline 
Study  of  Man"  (1873),  "Strength  and  Beauty"  (1874), 


The  Scientists  395 

and  "The  Scriptural  Idea  of  Man"  (1883).  Few  men  in 
America  have  been  more  potent  as  intellectual  and  moral 
forces  than  was  Mark  Hopkins.  President  Garfield  used 
to  say  that  a  student  on  one  end  of  a  log  and  Mark  Hopkins 
on  the  other  would  make  a  university  anywhere.  Great  as 
an  original  thinker  and  expounder,  he  was  greater  as  a 
teacher;  "he  built  himself  into  the  mental  fabric  of  two 
generations  of  men." 

Laurens  P.  Hickok. — Laurens  P.  Hickok  (1798-1888), 
a  Congregational  clergyman,  and  professor  successively  in 
Western  Reserve  College,  Auburn  Theological  Seminary, 
and  Union  College  (of  which  he  was  virtually  president 
1860-1868),  wrote  a  number  of  philosophical  and  theological 
works,  among  which  are  "Rational  Psychology"  (1848), 
"Moral  Science"  (1853),  "Mental  Science"  (1854),  "Ra 
tional  Cosmology"  (1858),  "Humanity  Immortal"  (1872), 
" Creator  and  Creation  "  (1872),  and  "The  Logic  of  Reason " 
(1875).  He  also  contributed  to  theological  and  philo 
sophical  reviews. 

Francis  Bowen. — A  conservative  resolutely  opposed  to 
the  teachings  of  Fichte,  Kant,  and  Mill  on  the  one  hand 
and  of  Darwin  on  the  other,  Francis  Bowen  (1811-1890)  is 
remembered  as  a  strong  and  clear  writer  and  an  enthusiastic 
teacher.  Nine  years  after  his  graduation  from  Harvard 
(in  1833),  we  find  him  editing  Virgil  and  publishing  "Critical 
Essays  on  Speculative  Philosophy."  He  edited  The  North 
American  Review  from  1843  till  1854,  then  became  Alford 
professor  of  natural  religion,  moral  philosophy,  and  civil 
polity  in  Harvard  College.  Of  his  voluminous  writings 
we  can  mention  only  a  few:  "Lectures  on  the  Application 
of  Metaphysical  and  Ethical  Science  to  the  Evidences  of 
Religion"  (1849),  "Lectures  on  Political  Economy"  (1850), 
"The  Principles  of  Political  Economy"  (1856),  an  edition 
of  "The  Metaphysics  of  Sir  William  Hamilton"  (1862), 


396  The  Nineteenth  Century 

"Modern  Philosophy  from  Descartes  to  Schopenhauer  and 
Hartmann"  (1877),  and  "A  Layman's  Study  of  the  English 
Bible"  (1885). 

Noah  Porter. — Professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  meta 
physics  at  Yale  College  for  forty-six  years,  and  president 
of  Yale  University  for  fifteen  years,  Noah  Porter  (1811- 
1892)  made  a  strong  impression  in  both  the  philosophical, 
and  the  educational  world.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
Noah  Porter,  for  fifty  years  minister  of  the  Congregational 
Church  in  Farmington,  Connecticut,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1831.  He  was  a  minister  at  New  Milford,  Con 
necticut,  and  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  for  ten  years; 
then  he  assumed  his  chair  at  Yale.  His  chief  work,  "The 
Human  Intellect"  (1868),  ably  champions  the  theistic 
view  of  the  universe,  and  has  had  wide  use  as  a  text-book, 
as  has  also  his  "Elements  of  Intellectual  Science"  (1871). 
He  wrote  also  "The  Elements  of  Moral  Science"  (1885) 
and  "A  Critical  Exposition  of  Kant's  Ethics"  (1886); 
besides  several  books  on  education,  of  which  we  may 
mention  "American  Colleges  and  the  American  Public" 
(1870)  and  "Books  and  Reading"  (1870).  He  also  edited 
the  revised  editions  (1864,  1890)  of  Webster's  Dictionary. 

James  McCosh. — The  Scottish  philosophy  was  vigorously 
championed  in  America  by  President  James  McCosh 
(1811-1894).  Born  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  of  a  sturdy 
middle-class  family,  he  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Edin 
burgh.  His  graduation  essay  on  the  Stoic  philosophy  won 
him  the  honorary  degree  of  A.M.  Becoming  a  minister 
of  the  Established  Kirk,  he  seceded  with  Chalmers  and 
rendered  valuable  service  to  the  Free  Church.  His  ' '  Method 
of  the  Divine  Government,  Physical  and  Moral"  (1850) 
laid  the  foundation  of  his  fame  as  a  philosophical  writer, 
and  doubtless  led  to  his  appointment  in  1852  to  the  pro 
fessorship  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  Queen's  College, 


The  Scientists  397 

Belfast.  From  Belfast,  after  an  active  literary  and 
educational  career,  he  was  called  to  the  presidency  of 
Princeton  College,  and  thenceforward  was  a  distinguished 
figure  in  the  American  intellectual  world.  His  numerous 
writings  after  1868  include  "The  Scottish  Philosophy, 
Biographical,  Expository,  Critical"  (1874),  "The  Emo 
tions"  (1880),  "Philosophical  Series"  (1882-1885,  eight 
volumes),  "Psychology  of  the  Cognitive  Powers"  (1886), 
"Realistic  Philosophy  Defended"  (1887),  "The  Religious 
Aspect  of  Evolution"  (1887),  and  "First  and  Fundamental 
Truths"  (1894).  Dr.  McCosh  was  one  of  the  first  to  point 
out  the  theological  bearing  of  Darwinism  and  to  announce 
his  acceptance  of  it  when  properly  understood.  "Touch 
ing  the  thought  of  his  time,"  says  Professor  Sloane,  "at 
its  salient  points  and  with  tremendous  vitality,  he  con 
stantly  insisted  on  the  few  central  truths  of  his  system  in 
their  application  to  each  new  question  as  it  arose.  In 
cisive,  intense,  and  real,  or  rather  concrete  in  his  think 
ing,  he  felt  a  loyalty  to  truth  which  he  sought  to  instil 
with  all  his  might  into  the  minds  of  others." 

William  Torrey  Harris. — William  T.  Harris  (born  in 
I835)  left  Yale  in  1857  to  become  a  teacher  in  St.  Louis, 
where  he  was  superintendent  of  schools  from  1867  till 
1888.  From  1889  till  1906  he  was  United  States  Com 
missioner  of  Education.  Although  leading  a  busy  life  as 
a  teacher,  he  found  time  for  philosophical  work.  He 
founded  (1867)  and  has  since  edited  The  Journal  of  Specu 
lative  Philosophy,  the  first  philosophical  periodical  in 
English.  His  "Hegel's  Logic"  (1890),  while  highly 
technical,  is  one  of  the  clearest  and  most  scholarly  ex 
positions  of  Hegelian  thought.  He  has  written  also  "  An 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Philosophy"  (1889),  "Psy 
chologic  Foundations  of  Education"  (1898),  and  many 
smaller  educational  and  philosophical  studies. 

John  Fiske. — One  of  the  greatest  of  modern  expositors 


398  The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  science  was  John  Fiske  (1842-1901).  He  was  born  at 
Middletown,  Connecticut,  and  entered  Harvard  as  a 
sophomore  in  1860,  graduating  in  1863.  The  works  of 
Spencer  and  Darwin  opened  a  new  world  to  his  vigorous 
imagination  and  he  devoted  many  years  to  elucidating 
and  applying  their  doctrines,  in  "Myths  and  Myth  Makers" 
(1872),  "Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy"  (1874),  "The 
Unseen  World"  (1876),  "Darwinism,  and  Other  Essays" 
(1879),  "Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist"  (1883),  "The 
Destiny  of  Man  Viewed  in  the  Light  of  His  Origin"  (1884)^ 
and  "The  Idea  of  God  as  Affected  by  Modern  Know 
ledge"  (1885).  His  later  years  were  devoted  to  studies 
in  American  history,  the  events  of  which  he  interpreted 
as  the  result  of  evolutionary  processes.  His  work  reveals 
a  uniform  optimism. 

Some  Living  Writers. — Among  living  writers  on  philo 
sophical  themes  space  will  permit  the  mention  of  only 
two  or  three.  The  son  of  Henry  James,  the  theologian, 
and  the  brother  of  Henry  James,  Jr.,  the  novelist,  William 
James  (born  in  1842)  was  educated  privately  and  at 
Harvard,  from  which  he  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in 
1870.  Two  years  later  he  became  an  instructor  and  in 
1 88 1  a  full  professor,  the  subjects  of  his  later  interest 
being  psychology  and  philosophy.  He  has  written,  among 
a  large  number  of  books  and  articles,  "Principles  of  Psy 
chology"  (1890),  "The  Will  to  Believe,  and  Other  Essays 
in  Popular  Philosophy"  (1897),  "Human  Immortality" 
(the  Ingersoll  Lecture,  1898),  "The  Varieties  of  Religious 
Experience"  (Gifford  Lectures  at  Edinburgh  University, 
1902),  and  "Pragmatism"  (1907).  Especially  note 
worthy  is  his  work  in  analytical  psychology.  Always 
clear  and  fresh  in  style,  his  writings  have  exerted  a  marked 
influence  on  thought  both  in  Europe  and  in  America. 

Borden  Parker  Bowne  (born  in  1847),  who,  after  gradu 
ating  at  New  York  University  in  1871,  studied  at  Halle, 


The  Scientists  399 

Gottingen,  and  Paris,  in  1876  became  professor  of  philo 
sophy  at  Boston  University.  He  has  written  "The  Philo 
sophy  of  Herbert  Spencer"  (1874),  "Studies  in  Theism" 
(1879),  "Metaphysics"  (1882),  "Introduction  to  Psycho 
logical  Theory"  (1886),  and  "Principles  of  Ethics"  (1892). 

Jacob  Gould  Schurman  (born  in  1854)  has  made  some 
worthy  contributions  to  the  literature  of  ethics;  it  is  a 
matter  of  regret  that  administrative  work  has  of  late  kept 
him  from  writing  more  for  the  general  public.  He  was 
born  at  Freetown,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  studied  at 
Acadia  College.  In  1875  he  won  the  Gilchrist  Dominion 
Scholarship  in  the  University  of  London,  from  which  he 
graduated  in  1877.  He  later  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
Heidelberg,  Berlin,  and  Gottingen,  and  in  Italy.  From 
1886  till  1892  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  in  Cornell 
University,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1892.  He 
has  written  lucid  studies  of  "Kantian  Ethics  and  the 
Ethics  of  Evolution"  (1881),  "The  Ethical  Import  of 
Darwinism"  (1888),  "Belief  in  God"  (1890),  and  "Agnos 
ticism  and  Religion"  (1896). 

Josiah  Royce  (born  in  1855),  a  Californian  who  studied 
at  the  University  of  California,  Leipsic,  Gottingen,  and 
Johns  Hopkins,  has  done  much  to  interpret  and  popularise 
the  thought  of  Hegel,  and  has  made  valuable  original 
contributions  to  contemporary  idealistic  thought.  His 
philosophical  works  include  "The  Religious  Aspect  of 
Philosophy"  (1885),  "The  Spirit  of  Modern  Philosophy" 
(1892),  "The  Conception  of  God"  (1895),  "Studies  of 
Good  and  Evil"  (1898),  "The  Conception  of  Immortality" 
(1900,  an  Ingersoll  Lecture),  and  "The  World  and  the 
Individual"  (1900-1901).  A  close  thinker,  he  writes  in  a 
remarkably  fresh,  vigorous,  and  informal  style. 

Political  and  Legal  Science. — In  the  fields  of  political, 
economic,  social,  and  legal  science  the  most  that  can  be 
claimed  for  American  writers  is  that  a  fair  number  of 


400  The  Nineteenth  Century 

them  have  achieved  genuine  distinction  and  enjoy  inter 
national  reputations.  America  is  still  too  young  to  be 
expected  to  have  produced  independent  schools  of  thought 
in  these  lines.  What  Dr.  Sherwood  says  of  the  economists 
may  have  a  larger  application  here: 

The  chief  reason  for  our  failure  to  make  large  contributions  to 
economic  science  [he  remarks  in  his  "Tendencies  in  American 
Economic  Thought "]  is  the  same  reason  which  explains  the  meagre- 
ness  of  our  contribution  to  general  science,  viz.,  the  all-absorbing 
problem  of  making  use  of  the  advantages  within  our  grasp.  Within 
a  century  we  have  been  compelled  to  work  out  several  most  difficult 
problems:  how  to  unite  in  a  solid  empire  many  vigorous,  large, 
and  discordant  nationalities;  how  to  stretch  this  empire  over  the 
adjacent  territories,  so  as  to  remove  dangerous  enemies;  how  to 
get  rid  of  slavery  without  disrupting  the  Union;  how  to  make 
our  general  education  keep  pace  with  our  growth  in  numbers 
and  with  the  advance  of  science;  how,  with  the  rapidly  shifting 
forms  of  industrial  organisation,  to  maintain  purity  of  government 
and  social  order;  how  to  govern  an  empire  without  an  emperor; 
how  to  push  forward  material  civilisation  without  going  backwards 
in  intellectual  and  moral  civilisation;  how  to  stimulate  invention 
so  as  to  win  wealth  for  all,  with  inadequate  labour  and  capital. 

These  practical  problems  have  kept  us  from  producing 
men  with  wealth  and  leisure  for  working  out  solutions 
of  the  large  abstract  questions  raised  in  these  sciences. 
Nor  have  our  writers  yet  succeeded  in  handling  large 
masses  of  facts  with  the  skill  of  some  foreign  writers. 
The  best  comprehensive  work  on  American  institutions 
remains  Bryce's  "American  Commonwealth,"  the  work  of 
an  Englishman.  Yet  in  Marshall,  Kent,  and  Story  we  have 
produced  some  great  jurists;  in  Wheaton,  Lawrence,  and 
Woolsey  some  great  writers  on  legal  science;  in  Carey, 
Wells,  Walker,  and  George  writers  of  commanding  import 
ance  in  the  sphere  of  political  economy. 

John  Marshall. — Pre-eminent  among  the  jurists  of 
America  is  John  Marshall  (i755-l835)>  f°r  thirty-four 


The  Scientists  401 

years  Chief -Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 
Marshall  served  as  an  officer  in  the  Revolution;  in  1780, 
being  without  a  command,  he  attended  Chancellor  Wyeth's 
lectures  on  law  at  William  and  Mary  College.  Entering 
upon  the  practice  of  law,  he  quickly  became  known  for 
his  acumen.  His  accession  to  the  Supreme  Court  bench 
(1801)  marks  an  epoch  in  our  legal  and  constitutional 
history.  He  had,  as  it  were,  to  blaze  a  trail.  The  Con 
stitution  had  been  adopted;  it  had  yet  to  be  construed. 
A  thousand  questions  arose  as  to  what  it  meant,  what  it 
included,  what  it  was  meant  not  to  include.  Marshall's 
decisions,  recorded  in  thirty-two  volumes  of  reports,  reveal 
the  impartial  workings  of  a  master  legal  mind.  Such 
men  do  not  often  appear;  it  was  fortunate  that  the  Ameri 
can  Government  in  its  early  years  was  guided  by  Marshall's 
constitutional  constructions.  They  virtually  form  a  system 
of  law,  a  system  which  has  not  since  been  seriously  modified. 
"The  judge  who  rears  such  a  monument  to  his  memory," 
says  Mr.  Magruder,  his  biographer,  "will  never  be  for 
gotten;  in  the  united  domain  of  English  and  American 
jurisprudence  there  are  not  half  a  dozen  such  memorials; 
but  not  the  least  distinguished  is  that  of  Marshall." 

James  Kent. — It  has  been  said  of  Kent's  "Commentaries 
upon  American  Law"  (1826-1830)  that  they  had  a  deeper 
and  more  lasting  influence  upon  the  American  character 
than  any  other  secular  book  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
James  Kent  (1763-1847)  graduated  from  Yale  in  1781  and 
then  practised  law,  first  at  Poughkeepsie,  and  after  1793 
in  New  York  City.  In  the  same  year  he  became  professor 
of  law  in  Columbia  College.  The  Federalist  leaders  rapidly 
advanced  him ;  he  was  made  Chief- Justice  of  the  New  York 
Supreme  Court  in  1804  and  Chancellor  in  1814.  Retiring 
in  1823,  he  resumed  his  teaching  at  Columbia,  and  later 
published  many  of  his  lectures  in  the  "Commentaries." 
His  Chancery  decisions,  to  be  found  in  Caines'  and  John- 
26 


i 


402  The  Nineteenth  Century 

son's  reports,  were  of  fundamental  importance  and  form 
the  basis  of  American  equity  jurisprudence. 

Joseph  Story. — With  Chancellor  Kent,  Joseph  Story 
(1779-1845)  shares  the  glory  of  having  laid  the  founda 
tions  of  American  equity  jurisprudence.  Story  gradu 
ated  from  Harvard  in  1798  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1 80 1.  Becoming  a  leader  of  what  was  later  the  Demo 
cratic  party,  in  1808  he  entered  Congress  and  in  1811 
was  appointed  an  Associate  Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  From  1829  on  he  was  also  a  professor 
of  law  at  Harvard.  For  some  time  after  Marshall's  death 
he  was  acting  Chief-Justice.  Many  of  his  opinions  in 
patent  and  admiralty  law  are  still  authoritative.  Some  of 
his  writings  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States"  (1833),  "The  Conflict  of  Laws"  (1834), 
"Commentaries  on  Equity  Jurisprudence"  (1835-1836), 
and  treatises  on  agency,  partnership,  bills,  and  notes. 

Henry  Wheaton. — Less  known  than  Story,  yet  in  his 
day  a  prominent  figure  in  the  legal  world,  was  Henry 
Wheaton  (1785-1848),  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  a 
graduate  of  Brown  University  in  the  class  of  1802.  He 
was  a  lawyer,  an  editor,  and  a  diplomatist  (from  1837 
till  1846  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Prussia).  His  "Ele 
ments  of  International  Law"  (1836,  republished  in  several 
editions,  and  translated  into  French,  Chinese,  and  Ja 
panese)  remains  one  of  the  leading  authorities.  Another 
important  work  was  his  ' '  Histoire  du  progres  des  gens  en 
Europe  depuis  le  paix  de  Westphalie  jusqu'au  Congres 
de  Vienne"  (1841,  English  translation  1846).  He  was 
widely  respected  for  sound  learning  and  diplomatic  ability. 

Francis  Lieber. — Francis  Lieber  (1800-1872),  a  native 
of  Berlin  and  a  Ph.D.  of  the  University  of  Jena  (1820), 
came  to  America  virtually  a  political  exile,  and,  though 
an  ardent  worshipper  of  freedom,  was  at  first,  as  Dr.  Harley 


The  Scientists  403 

remarks,  obliged  to  make  his  home  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  slave  power.  For  twenty-one  years  he  was  professor 
of  history  and  political  economy  in  South  Carolina  Col 
lege,  being  "the  first  great  teacher  in  this  country  of 
history  and  politics  as  co-ordinated  subjects."  From  1856 
till  1860  he  held  the  chair  of  political  economy  in  Columbia 
College;  and  from  1860  till  his  death  he  was  professor  of 
political  science  in  the  Columbia  Law  School.  The  great 
works  on  which  his  fame  rests  are  his  " Political  Ethics" 
(1838),  "Legal  and  Political  Hermeneutics "  (1839),  and 
"Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government"  (1853).  In  writing 
these  books  he  was  a  pioneer,  and  pointed  out  some  im 
portant  principles  of  American  liberty.  In  his  later  years 
he  gave  much  attention  to  international  and  military  law. 
From  his  proposals  originated  the  Institut  de  Droit  Inter 
national,  started  at  Ghent  in  1873,  "the  organ  for  the  legal 
consciousness  of  the  civilised  world." 

William  Beach  Lawrence. — Another  writer  whose  name 
is  linked  with  Columbia  College  is  William  B.  Lawrence 
(1800-1881).  Born  in  New  York  City,  he  graduated  from 
Columbia  in  1818,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1823,  and 
gave  attention  chiefly  to  international  law.  For  a  time  he 
lectured  at  Columbia  on  political  economy,  defending  free 
trade.  Removing  to  Rhode  Island,  he  served  as  acting 
Governor  in  1852.  In  1872-1873  he  lectured  on  interna 
tional  law  in  the  Columbian  University  at  Washington.  His 
works  are  marked  by  breadth  of  view  and  soundness  of 
judgment.  They  include  "The  Bank  of  the  United  States  " 
(1831),  "Institutions  of  the  United  States"  (1832),  "Dis 
courses  on  Political  Economy"  (1834),  "The  Law  of 
Charitable  Uses"  (1845),  "Commentaire  sur  les  Elements 
du  droit  international"  (1868-1880),  and  "The  Treaty  of 
Washington"  (1871). 

Theodore  Dwight  Woolsey. — Theodore  D.  Woolsey  (1801- 


404  The  Nineteenth  Century 

1889)  had  a  varied  preparation  for  his  notable  career. 
Graduating  at  Yale  in  1820,  he  studied  law  in  Phila 
delphia,  theology  at  Princeton,  and  Greek  at  Leipsic,  Bonn, 
and  Berlin.  From  1831  till  1846  he  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  Yale.  Becoming  president  of  Yale  in  1846,  he  thence 
forward  confined  his  teaching  to  history,  political  science, 
and  international  law,  and  became  eminent  as  a  writer 
on  subjects  in  these  fields.  Among  his  works  are  ''An 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  International  Law"  (1860), 
"Essays  on  Divorce  and  Divorce  Legislation"  (1869), 
"Political  Science"  (two  volumes,  1877),  and  "Com 
munism  and  Socialism,  in  Their  History  and  Theory" 
(1880). 

Henry  Wager  Halleck. — Chiefly  known  as  a  soldier, 
and  as  general  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States  from 
July,  1862,  till  March,  1864,  Henry  W.  Halleck  (1815- 
1872)  was  after  all  more  skilled  in  the  science  of  war  than 
in  its  practice  in  the  field.  He  studied  at  Union  College 
and  West  Point,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1839.  Before 
the  Lowell  Institute  in  1845  he  lectured  on  the  science  of 
war;  his  lectures,  published  as  "Elements  of  Military  Art 
and  Science,"  were  much  used  later  as  a  training  manual. 
The  chief  of  his  other  works,  "International  Law,  or  Rules 
Regulating  the  Intercourse  of  States  in  Peace  and  War" 
(1861),  abridged  in  1866  for  college  use,  still  ranks  among 
the  highest  authorities. 

Henry  Charles  Carey. — In  his  day  the  foremost  cham 
pion  of  governmental  protection  to  private  industry 
was  Henry  C.  Carey  (1793-1879).  The  eldest  son  of  Mat 
thew  Carey,  the  Philadelphia  publisher,  he  devoted  his 
early  years  to  carrying  on  the  bookselling  and  publishing 
business,  retiring  in  1835.  His  essay  on  "The  Rate  of 
Wages"  (1835)  was  soon  expanded  into  "The  Principles 
of  Political  Economy"  (1837-1840),  which  found  favour 


The  Scientists  405 

abroad  and  was  translated  into  Swedish  and  Italian.  His 
other  leading  works  were  "The  Credit  System  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States"  (1838),  ''The  Past, 
the  Present,  and  the  Future"  (1848),  "Letters  on  the 
International  Copyright"  (1853),  "The  Principles  of  Social 
Science"  (1858),  and  "The  Unity  of  Law"  (1873).  Carey 
was  originally  a  free-trader,  but  early  became  a  supporter 
of  protection  on  the  ground  of  temporary  expediency. 
Some  of  his  views  have  been  attacked  as  unwarranted 
and  dogmatically  expressed;  it  must  be  conceded,  how 
ever,  that  he  had  a  strong  grasp  of  facts  and  that  his 
works  are  an  invaluable  contribution  to  economic  and 
social  science. 

David  Ames  Wells. — For  many  years,  it  is  safe  to  say, 
the  leading  economist  in  America  was  David  A.  Wells 
(1828-1898).  He  was  descended  from  Thomas  Welles, 
Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1655-1658,  was  born  at  Spring 
field,  Massachusetts,  and  was  graduated  from  Williams 
College  in  1847  and  from  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School 
of  Harvard  in  1852.  For  some  years  he  taught  physics 
and  chemistry,  and  was  engaged  also  in  writing  school 
text-books  on  these  subjects.  An  essay  ("Our  Burden 
and  Strength")  on  the  resources  and  financial  ability  of 
the  United  States  (1864)  brought  Wells  into  prominence, 
while  it  did  much  to  restore  confidence  in  the  Federal 
Government.  President  Lincoln  summoned  Mr.  Wells  to 
Washington,  and  appointed  him  chairman  of  the  Revenue 
Commission  of  1865-1866.  As  special  commissioner  of  the 
revenue  (1866-1870)  he  completed  vast  reforms  in  the 
complex  system  of  revenue  which  had  grown  up  during 
the  war.  Thereafter  he  was  largely  engaged  in  writing 
and  speaking  on  economic  topics.  Among  his  books  are 
"Robinson  Crusoe's  Money,"  illustrated  by  Nast  (1876), 
"Our  Merchant  Marine:  How  It  Rose,  Increased,  Be 
came  Great,  Declined,  and  Decayed"  (1882),  "Practical 


406  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Economics"  (1885),  "A  Study  of  Mexico"  (1887),  "The 
Relation  of  the  Tariff  to  Wages"  (1888),  and  "Recent 
Economic  Changes"  (1898). 

Francis  Amasa  Walker. — Born  in  Boston,  Francis 
A.  Walker  (1840-1897)  graduated  from  Amherst  at  twenty, 
then  served  in  the  Union  Army,  becoming  a  brigadier- 
general.  In  1869  he  was  put  at  the  head  of  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics;  he  was  superintendent  of  the  Ninth  and  the 
Tenth  Census,  and  held  other  prominent  positions,  includ 
ing  (1873-1881)  the  professorship  of  political  economy  and 
history  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  and 
(1881-1897)  the  presidency  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology.  He  was  a  prolific  writer;  of  his  economic 
works  we  can  mention  only  "The  Indian  Question"  (1874), 
"The  Wages  Question"  (1876),  "Money"  (1878),  "Money 
in  its  Relations  to  Trade  and  Industry"  (Lowell  Institute 
lectures,  1879),  "Political  Economy"  (1883),  "Land  and 
its  Rent"  (1883),  and  "International  Bimetallism"  (1896). 
Walker's  influence  as  an  economist  was  felt  especially  in 
connection  with  the  theory  of  wages.  "The  central  idea 
of  his  theory,"  says  Dr.  Sherwood,  "that  the  amount  of 
wages  under  free  competition  tends  to  equal  the  product 
due  to  the  labour,  has  been  generally  accepted,  although 
not  altogether  as  the  direct  result  of  his  writing." 

Henry  George. — The  theories  of  Henry  George  (1839- 
1896)  have  been  widely  discussed.  They  were  first  put 
forth  in  "Our  Land  and  Land  Policy"  (1871),  in  which  he 
held  that  the  burden  of  taxation  should  be  borne  by  the 
land  and  not  by  industry,  and  that  thus  opportunities  for 
progress  would  be  equalised.  His  most  important  book 
was  "Progress  and  Poverty"  (1879),  which  in  a  few  years 
made  George  virtually  the  apostle  of  a  new  economic  and 
social  creed.  Conservative  economists  have  been  slow  to 
accept  his  single-tax  theory;  it  has,  however,  called  atten- 


The  Scientists  407 

tion  to  the  enormous  waste  and  wrong  that  result  from 
granting  public  franchises  to  private  corporations  without 
due  compensation.  His  theory  of  wages,  that  they  arise 
from  a  value  created  by  the  efficiency  of  the  labourer,  has 
been  generally  accepted  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  real 
contribution  to  economic  science. 

Some  Other  Writers. — More  than  a  generation  of  Williams 
College  men  sat  under  the  teaching  of  Arthur  Latham  Perry 
(1830-1905),  for  thirty-eight  years  professor  of  history 
and  political  economy.  Perry  published  his  "  Elements  of 
Political  Economy"  in  1865;  some  twenty  editions  have 
since  appeared.  His  advocacy  of  free  trade  in  the  sixties 
cost  him  many  friends.  He  published  also  a  work  on 
"International  Commerce"  (1866)  and  smaller  treatises 
on  political  economy.  Elisha  Mulford  (1833-1885),  a  gradu 
ate  of  Yale  College  and  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  was  the 
author  of  two  highly  powerful  and  stimulating  books: 
"The  Nation"  (1870),  dealing  with  the  philosophy  of  the 
state,  and  "The  Republic  of  God"  (1880),  a  religious  work 
of  similar  character.  William  Graham  Sumner  (born  in 
1840)  became  prominent  for  his  advocacy  of  free  trade 
and  of  the  gold  standard.  Graduating  at  Yale  in  1863, 
he  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Oxford,  then  took  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  Church.  Since  1872  he  has  been  professor 
of  political  and  social  science  at  Yale.  He  has  written 
"A  History  of  American  Currency"  (1874),  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  Protection  in  the  United  States"  (1875), 
"What  Social  Classes  Owe  Each  Other"  (1882),  "Collected 
Essays  in  Political  and  Social  Science"  (1885),  "The  Finan 
cier  and  Finances  of  the  American  Revolution"  (1892), 
and  "A  History  of  Banking  in  the  United  States"  (1896). 
Another  well  known  political  economist  is  Richard  Theo 
dore  Ely  (born  in  1854),  a  graduate  of  Columbia  College 
(1876)  and  of  Heidelberg  (Ph.D.  summa  cum  laude,  1879), 
who,  as  director  of  the  School  of  Economics,  Political 


4°8  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Science,  and  History  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  has 
trained  more  teachers  of  economic  science  than  any  other 
American  living  and  has  exerted  marked  influence  on  the 
thought  of  his  time.  He  has  to  his  credit  a  long  list  of 
valuable  publications;  some  of  them  are  "French  and 
German  Socialism  in  Modern  Times"  (1883),  "The  Labour 
Movement  in  America"  (1886),  "Taxation  in  American 
States  and  Cities"  (1888),  "Socialism,  an  Examination 
of  Its  Nature,  Its  Strength,  and  Its  Weakness,  with  Sug 
gestions  for  Social  Reform"  (1894),  "The  Social  Law  of 
Service"  (1896),  and  "Monopolies  and  Trusts"  (1900). 
The  tendency  of  the  Government  to  regulate  economic 
movements  is  in  harmony  with  a  doctrine  of  which  he 
has  been  a  bold  champion.  Another  equally  high  author 
ity  on  trusts  and  currency  problems  is  Jeremiah  Whipple 
Jenks  (born  in  1856),  since  1891  professor  of  political 
economy  at  Cornell  University.  His  "The  Trust  Prob 
lem"  (1900)  and  "Trusts  and  Industrial  Combinations" 
(1900)  have  circulated  widely.  President  Woodrow  Wil 
son  (born  in  1856)  of  Princeton,  discussed  elsewhere  as  a 
historian,  must  also  be  mentioned  here  for  his  standard 
work  on  "The  State:  Elements  of  Historical  and  Practical 
Politics"  (1889),  "An  Old  Master,  and  Other  Political 
Essays"  (1893),  and  "Mere  Literature,  and  Other  Essays," 
in  which  large  and  sound  views  of  government  and  its 
functions  are  set  forth  in  a  clear  and  attractive  style. 

Ethnological  and  Linguistic  Science. — In  the  broad 
field  of  ethnological  research  the  work  of  American  scholars 
has  been  chiefly  devoted  to  the  native  and  primitive  races 
of  America.  This  offers,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
McGee,1  "the  finest  field  the  world  affords,"  exhibiting 
nearly  every  stage  of  development  and  nearly  every  type 
of  mankind ;  and  American  contributions  to  ethnology  and 
anthropology  have  been  correspondingly  important.  The 

1  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  September,  1898,  Ixxxii.  319. 


The  Scientists  409 

names  of  Gallatin,  Schoolcraft,  Morgan,  Powell,  Brinton, 
will  be  at  once  recalled;  probably  the  last  named  is  our 
best  known  ethnologist.  In  the  science  of  language  our 
showing  is,  in  point  of  numbers,  somewhat  more  creditable. 
The  lexicographical  work  of  Webster,  Worcester,  Whitney, 
and  March,  and  the  grammatical  work  of  Child  and  Gilder- 
sleeve  have  been  recognised  and  appreciated  the  world 
over.  In  these  sciences  America's  debt  to  Germany  is  a 
heavy  one.  Most  of  our  greater  teachers  of  language 
received  their  professional  training  in  Germany;  and  while 
fewer  of  our  students  now  go  to  Germany  for  the  doctor's 
degree,  the  influence  of  German  scholarship  is  still  strongly 
felt  among  us. 

Pierre  Etienne  Duponceau. — Duponceau  (1760-1844) 
was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  American  philology.  Born  in 
France,  he  came  to  America  in  1777  as  secretary  to  Baron 
Steuben,  served  in  the  American  army  as  captain  till 
1781,  and  afterward  practised  law  in  Philadelphia,  becoming 
well  known.  He  wrote  treatises  on  law:  "Exposition  som- 
maire  de  la  constitution  des  Etats-Unis  d'Amerique" 
(1837);  and  in  linguistics:  "English  Phonology"  (1818), 
"M£moire  sur  le  systeme  grammatical  des  languages  de 
quelques  nations  indiennes  de  1'Ame'rique  du  Nord"  (1838), 
which  was  awarded  a  medal  by  the  French  Institute,  and 
"A  Dissertation  on  the  Nature  and  Character  of  the  Chinese 
System  of  Writing"  (1838). 

Albert  Gallatin.  —  The  long  and  illustrious  political 
career  of  Albert  Gallatin  (1761-1849)  must  not  detain 
us  here.  Most  of  his  literary  and  ethnological  work  was 
done  in  his  later  years.  In  1836  he  published  his  "Synopsis 
of  the  Indian  Tribes  within  the  United  States,  East  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  British  and  Russian  Posses 
sions  in  North  America."  In  1845  appeared  his  "Notes 
on  the  Semi-Civilised  Nations  of  Mexico,  Yucatan,  and 


410  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Central  America."  He  founded  the  American  Ethnological 
Society  in  1842 ;  and  he  is  rightly  known  and  will  be  remem 
bered  as  the  father  of  American  ethnology. 


Henry  Rowe  Schooler  aft. — Among  the  most  prominent 
of  early  American  ethnologists  was  Henry  R.  Schoolcraft 
(1793-1864).  His  grandfather,  James  Calcraft,  formerly 
a  British  soldier  under  Marlborough,  had  kept  a  large  school 
in  Albany  County,  New  York,  and  because  of  this  his 
name  was  changed  to  Schoolcraft.  At  an  early  age  Henry 
Schoolcraft  became  a  student  of  mineralogy,  chemistry, 
natural  philosophy,  and  medicine.  In  connection  with  his 
father's  glass-making  enterprises  in  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  and  western  New  York,  he  was  engaged  for  some 
time  in  building  glass-works,  and  in  1817  began  to  publish 
a  work  on  "  Vitreology . "  Conceiving  a  desire  to  travel 
in  the  Far  West,  he  started  in  1818  on  a  journey  down  the 
Ohio  and  up  the  Mississippi.  A  book  resulting  from  this, 
on  the  mineralogy  of  the  West,  made  him  well  known. 
Another  expedition  was  described  in  "Travels  in  the  Cen 
tral  Portions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley"  (1825).  In  1828 
he  was  the  leader  in  founding  the  Michigan  Historical 
Society  and  in  1832  he  helped  found  the  Algic  Society, 
for  the  reclamation  and  study  of  the  Indians.  A  narrative 
of  his  work  and  experiences  was  embodied  in  "  Personal 
Memoirs  of  a  Residence  of  Thirty  Years  with  the  Indian 
Tribes  on  the  American  Frontiers,  1812  to  1842,"  a  work 
full  of  the  flavour  of  the  primitive  West.  Other  works  were 
"Algic  Researches"  (1839),  a  collection  of  Indian  alle 
gories  and  legends;  "Oneota,  or  The  Characteristics  of  the 
Red  Race  in  America"  (1844-1845);  "The  Red  Race  of 
America"  (1847);  and  "American  Indians,  their  History, 
Condition,  and  Prospects"  (1850),  an  immense  work  cover 
ing  a  wide  range  of  subjects.  His  books  did  much  to  pro 
mote  knowledge  of  Indian  life  and  thought. 


The  Scientists  41 1 

Charles  Pickering.  —  Another  well-known  ethnologist, 
Charles  Pickering  (1805-1878),  born  in  Susquehanna 
County,  Pennsylvania,  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1823  and  took  his  degree  in  medicine  in  1826.  He 
accompanied  Commodore  Wilkes  in  the  Vincennes  on 
its  exploring  voyage  around  the  world  in  1838-1842 
and  later  visited  India  and  Eastern  Africa.  His  great 
work  was  "The  Races  of  Man  and  their  Geographical 
Distribution"  (1848);  later  works  of  importance  were 
"The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals  and  Man" 
(1854)  and  "The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Plants" 
(1861). 

Lewis  Henry  Morgan. — Lewis  H.  Morgan  (1818-1881), 
born  at  Aurora  on  Cayuga  Lake,  New  York,  and  gradu 
ated  from  Union  College  in  1840,  became  interested  in 
studying  the  Indians  through  having  organised  a  society 
called  "The  Grand  Order  of  the  Iroquois,"  which  he  wished 
to  model  after  the  ancient  Iroquois  Confederacy.  The 
first  literary  fruits  of  his  studies  were  his  "  Letters  on  the 
Iroquois"  (in  The  American  Review  in  1847).  Finding 
that  he  must  neglect  his  law  practice  or  abandon  his  In 
dian  studies,  he  determined  to  publish  all  his  materials 
and  then  cleave  to  law.  In  1851,  then,  appeared  "The 
League  of  the  Iroquois,"  in  which  were  fully  explained 
the  organisation  and  government  of  the  celebrated  Iro 
quois  Confederacy,  and  which  formed  the  first  scientific 
account  of  an  Indian  tribe.  A  few  years  later,  urged  by 
Henry,  Agassiz,  and  others,  he  took  up  his  studies  again, 
and  began  an  investigation  which  was  extended  to  em 
brace  the  whole  world,  and  which  resulted  in  his  scholarly 
"Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of  the  Human 
Family,"  published  in  1871,  as  No.  17  of  the  Smithsonian 
"Contributions  to  Knowledge."  In  1881  he  gathered  his 
materials  on  tribal  organisation  into  an  epoch-making 
philosophical  treatise  on  "Ancient  Society,"  which  materi- 


412  The  Nineteenth  Century 

ally  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  our  modern  science 
of  governmental  institutions. 

John  Wesley  Powell. — Major  John  W.  Powell  (1834- 
1902)  became  conspicuous  both  as  a  geologist  and  an 
anthropologist.  He  studied  at  two  or  three  small  Western 
colleges,  served  in  the  Civil  War,  and  then  taught  geology 
in  two  Illinois  universities.  In  1867  he  travelled  in  the 
Colorado  Rockies  and  thenceforward  for  many  years  was 
busied  with  surveys  and  explorations  of  the  Far  West. 
From  1 88 1  till  1894  he  was  director  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  resigning  to  become  director  of  the 
Bureau  of  Anthropology.  He  made  many  important  con 
tributions  to  the  sciences  which  interested  him,  publishing 
"Exploration  of  the  Colorado  River  of  the  West  and  Its 
Tributaries"  (1875),  "Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  Uinta 
Mountains"  (1876),  "Report  on  the  Arid  Region  of  the 
United  States"  (1879),  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Indian  Languages"  (1880),  "Studies  in  Sociology"  (1887), 
"Canyons  of  the  Colorado"  (1895),  and  "Physiographic 
Processes,  Physiographic  Features,  and  Physiographic 
Regions  of  the  United  States"  (1895). 

Daniel  Garrison  Brinton. — Daniel  G.  Brinton  (1837- 
1899)  of  Philadelphia  was  one  of  the  leading  archaeologists  of 
the  New  World.  Graduating  at  Yale  in  1858  and  at  the 
Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  in  1860,  he  served 
as  a  surgeon  in  the  war  and  from  1867  to  1887  was  editor 
of  The  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter.  From  1886  until 
his  death  he  was  professor  of  American  linguistics  and 
archaeology  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  has 
to  his  credit  a  long  list  of  important  books  and  papers, 
only  a  few  of  which  can  be  mentioned  here.  He  began 
to  publish  in  1859  ("The  Floridian  Peninsula,  Its  Literary 
History,  Indian  Tribes,  and  Antiquities").  From  boy 
hood  he  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  study  of  the  American 


The  Scientists  413 

Indians;  and  in  1868  he  published  "The  Myths  of  the  New 
World."  He  also  wrote,  on  Indian  subjects,  "American 
Hero  Myths"  (1882),  "The  American  Race"  (1892),  and 
numerous  ethnological  and  linguistic  papers.  He  also 
both  edited  (for  the  most  part)  and  published  "The  Library 
of  Aboriginal  American  Literature  "  in  eight  volumes  (1882- 
1885).  In  the  controversies  between  science  and  theo 
logical  dogma  he  was  a  pronounced  radical.  Along  with  his 
scientific  labours  Dr.  Brinton  found  time  for  some  studies 
in  poetry,  especially  of  Browning  and  Whitman. 

Noah  Webster. — Among  students  of  linguistic  science 
the  first  to  be  mentioned  in  point  of  time,  and  one  of  the 
first  in  importance,  is  Noah  Webster  (1758-1843),  a  native 
of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  and  a  graduate  of  Yale  College, 
whose  "Grammatical  Institute  of  the  English' Language " 
(spelling-book,  grammar,  and  reader)  appeared  in  1783- 
1785.  These  books  had  an  immense  sale.  The  grammar 
showed  originality,  but  was  partly  superseded  by  Murray's. 
Webster  published  also  "Dissertations  on  the  English  Lan 
guage"  (1789),  a  more  advanced  "Philosophical  and  Prac 
tical  Grammar  of  the  English  Language"  (1807),  and 
"Origin,  History,  and  Connection  of  the  Languages  of 
Western  Asia  and  of  Europe"  (1807) ;  the  last  being  one  of 
the  first  fruits  of  Sir  William  Jones'  identification  of  San 
skrit  in  1786.  The  great  work  of  Webster's  life,  however, 
was  his  "American  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language," 
first  published  in  1828.  Revised  in  1847,  1864,  and  1890, 
this  is  now  the  "International"  and  enjoys  a  large  sale. 
The  e'dition  of  1901  contains  2528  pages. 

Lindley  Murray. — Lindley  Murray  (1745-1826),  a  native 
of  Pennsylvania,  made  a  fortune  in  trade  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution,  and  then  settled  at  Holdgate,  near  York, 
England.  Here  he  wrote  his  "  Grammar  of  the  English 
Language"  (1795),  which  by  1816  had  swollen  to  two 


414  The  Nineteenth  Century 

volumes.  In  1818  he  published  an  "Abridgement,"  which 
went  through  some  six-score  editions.  It  laid  great  stress 
on  syntax,  and  was  a  terror  to  generations  of  students. 

Joseph  Emerson  Worcester. — For  many  years  the  only 
rival  of  Webster's  Dictionary  was  Worcester's.  Like 
Webster,  Joseph  Emerson  Worcester  (1784-1865)  was  a 
graduate  of  Yale  College.  After  teaching  for  a  time  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  he  settled  at  Cambridge.  After 
various  lexicographical  labours,  he  issued  ''A  Universal 
and  Critical  Dictionary"  (1846),  containing  "in  addition 
to  the  words  found  in  Todd's  edition  of  Johnson's  Diction 
ary,  nearly  27,000  words  for  which  authorities  are  given." 
In  1860  this  was  expanded  into  the  quarto  "Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language,"  which  included  about  104,000 
words.  In  a  memoir  of  Dr.  Worcester,  Ezra  Abbot  said: 

The  tendency  of  his  mind  was  practical  rather  than  speculative. 
As  a  lexicographer,  he  did  not  undertake  to  reform  long-estab 
lished  anomalies  in  the  English  language:  his  aim  was  rather  to 
preserve  it  from  corruption ;  and  his  works  have  certainly  contrib 
uted  much  to  that  end.  In  respect  both  to  orthography  and 
pronunciation,  he  took  great  pains  to  ascertain  the  best  usage; 
and  perhaps  there  is  no  lexicographer  whose  judgment  respecting 
these  matters  in  doubtful  cases  deserves  higher  consideration. 

Goold  Brown. — Most  of  our  grandfathers  got  their 
knowledge  of  English  grammar  from  the  text-books  of 
Goold  Brown  (1791-1857).  His  education  was  obtained 
at  the  Friends'  School  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  his 
birthplace.  He  became  a  successful  teacher  and  for 
twenty  years  conducted  an  academy  in  New  York  City. 
His  "Institutes  of  English  Grammar"  appeared  in  1823 
and  with  an  elementary  work  had  an  enormous  circula 
tion.  His  "Grammar  of  English  Grammars"  (1851),  which 
brought  him  wide  reputation,  has  been  called  "the  most 
exhaustive,  most  accurate,  and  most  original  treatise  on 
the  English  language  ever  written."  This  is  absurdly 


The  Scientists  415 

high  praise;  yet  the  book  is  undoubtedly  a  monument  of 
industry,  and  has  been  for  many  earnest  souls  "a  court 
of  last  resort  on  matters  grammatical." 

George  Perkins  Marsh, — In  his  day  a  distinguished 
diplomatist  and  man  of  letters,  George  P.  Marsh  (1801- 
1882)  made  substantial  contributions  to  philology.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1820  and  studied  law. 
He  soon  turned  to  studies  in  language  and  in  1838  printed 
privately  a  translation  of  Rask's  "Icelandic  Grammar." 
His  "Lectures  on  the  English  Language"  (1861)  were 
delivered  originally  at  Columbia;  his  "Origin  and  History 
of  the  English  Language"  (1862)  was  a  course  of  Lowell 
Institute  lectures. 


Samuel  Stehman  Haldeman. — Samuel  S.  Haldeman 
(1812-1880)  attained  a  respectable  place  as  a  philologist, 
but  was  also  known  as  a  naturalist  and  an  archaeologist. 
He  went  to  Dickinson  College  two  years,  but  not  liking 
the  course  of  study,  left  to  study  by  himself.  Shortly 
after  his  marriage  in  1835,  he  settled  at  Chickies,  Penn 
sylvania,  became  a  silent  partner  with  two  brothers  in 
the  iron  business,  and  spent  most  of  his  time  in  his  library, 
where,  for  many  years,  he  worked  sixteen  hours  a  day. 
His  nature-studies  resulted  in  "Fresh-Water  Univalve 
Mollusca  of  the  United  States"  (nine  parts,  1840-1845); 
"Zoological  Contributions"  (1842-1843);  "Zoology  of  the 
Invertebrate  Animals"  (1850);  and  more  than  seventy 
papers.  He  began  early  to  take  interest  in  the  Indian 
languages,  and  published  papers  on  them,  as  well  as  on 
the  languages  of  Europe  and  China,  and  on  spelling  re 
form.  These  writings  are  now  valuable  chiefly  as  land 
marks  in  the  history  of  linguistic  science;  but  this  does 
not  impair  Haldeman' s  contemporary  reputation  as  a 
learned  and  accurate  linguist.  His  last  works  were  a 


4i 6  The  Nineteenth  Century 

monograph  on  "Pennsylvania  Dutch"   (1872)  and  "Out 
lines  of  Etymology"  (1878). 

James  Hammond  Trumbull. — Well  known  as  a  thorough 
student  of  Indian  languages  was  James  H.  Trumbull 
(1821-1897)  of  Hartford,  Connecticut.  He  studied  at  Yale 
in  the  class  of  1842,  but  was  prevented  by  ill  health  from 
graduating.  On  linguistics  he  wrote  "The  Composition 
of  Indian  Geographical  Names"  (1870),  "The  Best  Methods 
of  Studying  the  Indian  Languages"  (1871),  "Notes  on 
Forty  Algonkin  Versions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer"  (1873), 
and  "Indian  Names  of  Places  in  and  on  the  Borders  of 
Connecticut,  with  Interpretations"  (1881).  He  also  edited 
Roger  Williams'  "Key  into  the  Language  of  America" 
(1866). 

Francis  James  Child. — Francis  J.  Child  (1825-1896), 
created  a  tradition  of  zeal  for  broad  and  sound  learning, 
the  influence  of  which  is  still  strong.  A  Boston  youth,  he 
stood  at  the  head  of  his  class  at  Harvard,  that  of  1846. 
For  forty-five  years  he  was  a  professor  in  Harvard.  In 
addition  to  some  excellent  editions  of  texts,  he  published 
an  epoch-making  monograph,  "Observations  on  the 
Language  of  Chaucer"  (1862),  "Observations  on  the 
Language  of  Gower's  Confessio  Amantis"  (1866),  and  a 
monumental  edition  of  "English  and  Scottish  Popular 
Ballads"  (1857-1858,  revised  and  enlarged  edition  in  ten 
volumes,  1882-1898),  which  is  a  model  of  accurate,  com 
prehensive  work,  and  which  it  is  safe  to  say  will  not  soon 
be  superseded.  It  is  due  largely  to  Child  that  Harvard 
has  become  one  of  the  leading  centres  of  English  study  in 
America. 

Francis  Andrew  March. — The  Nestor  of  living  American 
philologists  is  Professor  Francis  A.  March  (born  in  1825), 
since  1855  a  teacher  in  Lafayette  College.  He  graduated 


The  Scientists  41? 

at  Amherst  College  in  1845.  At  first  he  pursued  philo 
sophical  studies,  but  was  later  drawn  to  the  study  of 
language.  His  "Method  of  Philological  Study  of  the 
English  Language"  appeared  in  1865.  His  "Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language"  (1870)  was  a 
pioneer,  and  with  the  "Anglo-Saxon  Reader"  (1870)  did 
good  service  in  introducing  the  subject  into  American 
colleges.  For  many  years  Dr.  March  has  been  an  ardent 
apostle  of  spelling  reform. 

William  Dwight  Whitney. — Probably  William  D wight 
Whitney  (1827-1894)  is  best  known  as  a  writer  of  text 
books  and  popular  expositor  of  linguistic  problems.  Among 
scholars,  however,  his  chief  monument  is  his  work  in 
Sanskrit.  Born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  he  was 
graduated  at  eighteen  from  Williams  College.  In  the 
winter  of  1848-1849  he  began  the  study  of  Sanskrit;  this 
study  he  continued  under  Salisbury  at  Yale,  Weber  at 
Berlin,  and  Roth  at  Tubingen.  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  at  Yale, 
and  held  this  chair  until  his  death ;  being  for  many  years 
accounted  the  leading  philologist  in  America.  He  was  a 
most  industrious  and  systematic  worker.  His  bibliography 
includes  360  titles.  He  wrote  simple  and  lucid  grammars 
of  English  (1877),  French  (1886),  German  (1869),  and 
Sanskrit  (1879);  "Language  and  the  Study  of  Language" 
(1867);  "Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies"  (1873-1874); 
"The  Life  and  Growth  of  Language"  (1875);  several 
translations,  with  commentaries,  of  Sanskrit  texts;  and 
numerous  papers  and  reviews.  He  was  also  editor-in-chief 
of  "The  Century  Dictionary"  (1889-1891)  and  read  every 
proof  of  its  21,138  columns.  But  his  greatest  service  to 
the  cause  of  science  was  in  holding  up  to  his  pupils  a  lofty 
ideal  and  a  rigorous  scientific  method. 

Hellenists,  Latinists,  and  linguists  of  every  sort  [said  Professor 
Pen-in  in  a  memorial  address],  and  even  historical  students  in 

27 


4i 8  The  Nineteenth  Century 

the  more  restricted  sense,  all  over  this  country  and  Europe,  are 
now  labouring,  each  in  his  chosen  field,  with  a  more  equable 
spirit,  a  broader  method,  and  a  loftier  ideal,  because  they  have 
caught  them  all,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  master  whose 
memory  we  honour. 

Basil  Lanneau  Gilder  sleeve. — Valuable  work  in  classical 
philology  has  been  done  by  Basil  L.  Gildersleeve  (born 
in  1831).  After  graduating  at  Princeton  in  1849,  he 
studied  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Gottingen,  receiving  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  from  Gottingen  in  1853.  For  twenty 
years  (1856-1876)  he  was  professor  of  Greek  (for  five 
years,  of  Latin  also)  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  In 
1876  he  was  called  to  a  similar  chair  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  which  he  has  since  held.  He  founded  (1880) 
and  has  since  edited  The  American  Journal  of  Philology, 
and  has  published,  among  other  books,  "A  Latin  Gram 
mar"  (1876,  twice  revised),  "Essays  and  Studies,  Edu 
cational  and  Literary"  (1890),  "The  Syntax  of  Classical 
Greek"  (part  i.,  1900,  with  Charles  W.  E.  Miller),  and 
editions  of  Justin  Martyr,  Persius,  and  Pindar. 

Natural  and  Physical  Science. — It  is  in  the  natural 
and  physical  sciences  that  our  attempt  to  cover  the  ground 
will  at  once  appear  most  hopeless.  In  some  of  these 
sciences,  for  example  astronomy,  physics,  and  geology, 
American  scholars  stand  concededly  among  the  foremost 
in  the  world;  to  practically  all  of  them  Americans  have 
contributed  noteworthy  studies  and  discoveries.  Lack  of 
space  prevents  even  the  mention,  with  one  or  two  excep 
tions,  of  living  writers. 

John  James  Audubon. — Among  the  naturalists  of 
America  no  name  is  more  illustrious  than  that  of  the  chief 
of  our  ornithologists,  John  James  Audubon  (1780-1851). 
His  father  was  a  French  naval  officer  who  had  settled 
upon  a  plantation  near  New  Orleans  and  married  a  lady 


The  Scientists  419 

of  Spanish  descent.  When  but  a  child  Audubon  used  to 
draw  pictures  of  birds;  of  those  which  were  not  satis 
factory  he  made  a  bonfire  at  each  birthday.  When  he 
was  about  eighteen,  his  father  settled  him  on  a  farm  near 
Philadelphia;  here  he  gratified  the  naturalist's  passion  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  was  good  for  nothing  else.  "For 
a  period  of  twenty  years,"  he  wrote  later,  "my  life  was  a 
series  of  vicissitudes.  I  tried  various  branches  of  com 
merce,  but  they  all  proved  unprofitable,  doubtless  because 
my  whole  mind  was  ever  filled  with  my  passion  for  rambling 
and  admiring  those  objects  of  Nature  from  which  alone  I 
received  the  purest  gratification."  He  lived  with  his 
family  successively  in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and 
Louisiana ;  drawing  and  studying  birds  incessantly.  Visit 
ing  England  in  1826,  he  arranged  for  the  publication  of 
"The  Birds  of  America"  (1830-1839).  It  was  to  be  pub 
lished  in  numbers  of  five  folio  plates  each,  the  whole  to  be 
in  four  volumes  and  to  be  sold  for  $1000  a  copy.  The  work 
was  to  cost  over  $100,000;  yet  he  had  not  money  enough 
to  pay  for  the  first  number.  He  supported  himself  by 
painting.  He  was  elected  (1830)  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  Audubon  accompanied  his  "Birds"  with  "Or 
nithological  Biographies"  (five  volumes,  1831-1839),  the 
literary  value  of  which  is  important;  "it  presents,"  says 
one  writer,  "in  language  warm  from  his  having  been  a  part 
of  the  scenes,  a  virgin  past  of  our  country,  and  its  forests 
and  prairies,  which  can  never  be  restored  or  so  well  described 
again."  "The  Viviparous  Quadrupeds  of  North  America," 
with  150  plates,  appeared  in  three  volumes  in  1845-1848; 
in  this  undertaking  he  was  assisted  by  his  two  sons  and 
the  Rev.  John  Bachman  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 
The  last  three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  mental  darkness. 
His  claim  to  honorable  rank  in  American  letters  cannot 
be  denied. 

Spencer  Fullerton  Baird. — No  American  naturalist  ex- 


420  The  Nineteenth  Century 

erted  a  wider  and  deeper  influence  than  Spencer  F.  Baird 
(1823-1887).  A  native  of  Pennsylvania  and  a  graduate 
of  Dickinson  College  (1840),  he  was  the  friend  and  in 
some  work  the  collaborator  of  Audubon,  Agassiz,  and 
other  zoologists.  Appointed  assistant  secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  1850,  he  directed  much  of  the 
scientific  exploration  of  the  West;  organised  the  National 
Museum  (1857);  succeeded  Henry  in  1878  as  secretary 
of  the  Smithsonian  and  largely  developed  its  work;  and 
in  1874  became  head  of  the  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fish 
eries,  and  organised  the  science  and  practice  of  fish  culture 
in  America.  He  was  besides  a  voluminous  writer.  His 
books  and  papers  down  to  1882  include  1063  titles.  Of 
them  we  may  mention  "Catalogue  of  North  American 
Reptiles"  (1853),  "The  Birds  of  America"  (with  John 
Cassin,  1860),  "The  Mammals  of  North  America"  (1859), 
and  "History  of  American  Birds"  (with  Thomas  M. 
Brewer  and  Robert  Ridgway,  1874-1884). 

Alpheus  Hyatt. — In  zoology  and  palaeontology  one  of 
the  celebrated  scholars  of  his  day  was  Alpheus  Hyatt 
(1838-1902).  Born  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  he  received  his 
education  at  the  Maryland  Military  Academy,  Yale  Col 
lege,  and  under  Agassiz  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School 
of  Harvard,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1862.  After 
the  Civil  War,  in  which  he  rose  to  be  a  captain,  he  con 
tinued  his  studies  in  natural  history  and  became  active 
in  fostering  these  studies  in  general.  He  helped  to  found 
The  American  Naturalist  in  1868,  and  was  the  principal 
founder  of  the  American  Society  of  Naturalists,  organised 
in  1883.  In  1 88 1  he  became  professor  of  zoology  and 
palaeontology  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
and  in  Boston  University.  He  was  equally  active  in 
teaching,  in  popularising  science,  and  in  research.  Some 
of  his  books  are  "Observations  on  Freshwater  Polyzoa" 
(1866),  "Revision  of  North  American  Poriferas"  (1875- 


The  Scientists  421 

1877),  long  the  only  work  on  North  American  commercial 
sponges,  "The  Genesis  of  the  Tertiary  Species  of  Planorbis 
at  Steinheim,"  a  long  and  important  monograph  on  the 
influence  of  gravity  on  certain  shells,  published  by  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  in  its  "Memoirs"  (1880), 
"Genera  of  Fossil  Cephalopods"  (1883),  "The  Larval 
Theory  of  the  Origin  of  Cellular  Tissue"  (1884),  giving 
his  theory  of  the  origin  of  sex,  and  "The  Genesis  of  the 
Arietidae"  (1889).  He  also  edited  a  series  of  "Guides 
for  Science-Teaching,"  of  several  of  which  he  himself  was 
also  the  author.  Few  Americans  indeed  have  done  so 
much  to  make  natural  science  popular  as  did  Hyatt.  His 
work  in  research  was  immensely  fruitful.  He  has  been 
called  the  founder  of  the  new  school  of  invertebrate 
palaeontology,  while  in  systematic  zoology  he  made  several 
discoveries  which  led  to  important  revisions  in  biological 
classification. 

Alpheus  Spring  Packard. — The  son  of  a  Bowdoin  College 
professor  of  the  same  name,  Alpheus  S.  Packard  (1839- 
1905)  naturally  entered  Bowdoin  and  there  came  under 
the  influence  of  Dr.  Paul  Chadbourne,  who  encouraged 
his  inclination  toward  zoological  study.  After  graduating 
from  Bowdoin  in  1861  and  from  the  Maine  Medical  School 
in  1864,  he  worked  under  Agassiz  at  Harvard,  devoting 
himself  largely  to  the  study  of  insects.  In  1867  he  became 
curator  of  invertebrates  and  in  1876  director,  of  the  Pea- 
body  Academy  of  Science  in  Salem,  Massachusetts.  In 
1878  he  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  geology 
in  Brown  University,  retaining  this  post  till  his  death.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  for  twenty  years  editor  of 
The  American  Naturalist.  Besides  hundreds  of  papers, 
he  wrote  a  "Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects"  (1869);  "The 
Mammoth  Cave  and  Its  Inhabitants,"  jointly  with  F.  W. 
Putnam  (1872);  "Life  Histories  of  Animals"  (1876), 
the  first  attempt  since  the  Lowell  Institute  lectures  of 


422  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Agassiz  to  attempt  a  summary  of  embryological  discoveries ; 
"Insects  Injurious  to  Forest  and  Shade  Trees"  (1890), 
"A  Naturalist  on  the  Labrador  Coast"  (1891),  "A  Text- 
Book  of  Entomology"  (1898),  and  ''Lamarck,  the  Founder 
of  Evolution:  His  Life  and  Work"  (1901).  Apropos  of 
the  last  book  it  will  be  remembered  that  Packard,  Cope, 
and  Hyatt  were  the  founders  and  chief  exponents  of 
the  Neo-Lamarckian  school  of  evolution.  Packard  was 
an  indefatigable  investigator  and  his  contributions  to 
entomology  and  zoology  immensely  advanced  those 
sciences. 

Edward  Drinker  Cope. — Another  celebrated  naturalist 
was  Edward  D.  Cope  (1840-1897)  of  Philadelphia,  whose 
studies  in  fossil  vertebrates  were  of  epoch-making  sig 
nificance.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
From  1864  till  1867  he  was  professor  of  natural  sciences 
in  Haverford  College.  For  twenty-two  years  thereafter 
he  was  engaged  in  exploration,  research,  and  editorial 
work.  In  1889  he  became  professor  of  geology  and 
palaeontology  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Before 
he  was  thirty  he  had  laid  his  foundations  in  five  chief 
lines  of  research,  ichthyology,  amphibians,  reptiles,  mam 
mals,  and  evolutionary  philosophy.  On  all  of  these  sub 
jects  he  wrote  much  and  wisely.  He  was  the  author  of 
over  four  hundred  volumes,  papers,  and  memoirs,  to  say 
nothing  of  hundreds  of  editorial  articles  in  The  American 
Naturalist,  which  he  edited  from  1878  until  his  death. 
On  the  subject  of  evolution  alone  his  most  important 
works  are  "The  Origin  of  Genera"  (1868),  "The  Origin 
of  the  Fittest"  (1886),  and  "The  Primary  Factors  of 
Organic  Evolution"  (1896).  His  activity  in  research  may 
be  judged  from  the  fact  that  he  himself  named  and  de 
scribed  1115  out  of  some  3200  known  species  of  North 
American  fossil  vertebrates.  Naturally,  in  attempting  so 
much,  he  fell  short  of  perfection  in  some  things. 


The  Scientists  423 

His  life-work,  [says  Professor  Osborn,»  ]  bears  the  marks  of 
great  genius,  of  solid  and  accurate  observation,  and  at  times  of 
inaccuracy  due  to  bad  logic  or  haste  and  over-pressure  of  work. 
The  greater  number  of  his  Natural  Orders  and  Natural  Laws  will 
remain  as  permanent  landmarks  in  our  science.  As  a  comparative 
anatomist  he  ranks,  both  in  the  range  and  effectiveness  of  his 
knowledge  and  his  ideas,  with  Cuvier  and  Owen.  ...  As  a 
natural  philosopher,  while  far  less  logical  than  Huxley,  he  was 
more  creative  and  constructive,  his  metaphysics  ending  in  theism 
rather  than  agnosticism. 

Elliott  Coues. — Distinguished  as  an  ornithologist,  Elliott 
Coues  (1842-1899)  became  favourably  known  also  for 
researches  in  biology  and  comparative  anatomy.  After 
taking  degrees  at  the  Columbian  University  in  1861-1863, 
he  entered  the  Union  Army  as  assistant  surgeon,  studying 
flora  and  fauna  wherever  he  went.  In  1873-1876  he  was 
surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  United  States  Northern 
Boundary  Commission  and  in  1876-1880  was  connected 
with  the  United  States  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey 
of  the  Territories.  He  helped  found  the  American  Ornitho 
logists'  Union  and  edited  its  organ,  The  Auk.  His  "Key 
to  North  American  Birds"  (1872,  rewritten  1884  and 
1901)  is  of  great  significance.  He  wrote  also  on  "Birds 
of  the  Northwest"  (1874),  "Birds  of  the  Colorado  Valley" 
(1878),  and  with  Winfrid  A.  Stearns,  "New  England  Bird 
Life"  (1881). 

David  Starr  Jordan. — David  Starr  Jordan  (born  in 
1851)  has  in  recent  years  been  regarded  chiefly  as  an 
educator;  he  became  known  through  his  studies  on  fishes. 
Entering  Cornell  University  in  1868,  he  was  appointed 
instructor  in  botany  in  1870  and  graduated  M.S.  in  1872. 
After  teaching  and  studying  science  for  some  years,  he 
was  made  (1879)  professor  of  zoology  at  Indiana  University, 
of  which  he  became  president  in  1885.  Since  1891  he 

*  Science,  May  7,  1897,  n.  s.  v.  717. 


424  The  Nineteenth  Century 

has  been  president  of  Stanford  University.  Some  of 
his  books  are  "A  Manual  of  the  Vertebrate  Animals  of 
the  Northern  United  States"  (1876),  "Science  Sketches" 
(1887),  "Fishes  of  North  and  Middle  America"  (1896- 
1899),  "Footnotes  to  Evolution"  (1898),  and  "The  Food 
and  Game  Fishes  of  North  America"  (1902).  He  is  a 
leader  both  in  his  chosen  scientific  field  and  in  educational 
thought. 

Asa  Gray. — The  best-known  botanist  of  his  epoch  was 
Asa  Gray  (1810-1888)  a  native  of  Paris,  Oneida  County, 
New  York.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  Fairfield  College 
in  1831,  but  soon  gave  up  medicine  for  botany  and  in 
1842  was  elected  to  the  Fisher  professorship  of  natural 
history  in  Harvard  University.  Any  adequate  narrative 
of  Gray's  tremendous  activity  as  a  writer  and  teacher  is 
out  of  the  question  here;  we  can  only  say  that  his  widely 
known  and  long  standard  text-books  on  botany  (begin 
ning  with  the  "Elements  of  Botany,"  1836,  which  grew 
into  the  "Structural  and  Systematic  Botany"  of  1879, 
and  including  his  "How  Plants  Grow,"  1858,  and  "How 
Plants  Behave,"  1872)  represent  but  a  small  part  of  his 
literary  activity.  With  Dr.  Torrey  he  began  (1838)  the 
"Flora  of  North  America";  he  wrote  also  valuable  bo 
tanical  memoirs  and  many  valuable  articles  for  The  North 
American  Review  and  The  American  Journal  of  Science. 

Edward  Hitchcock. — Edward  Hitchcock  (1793-1864),  a 
Congregational  clergyman,  and  for  thirty-nine  years  a 
professor  of  science  in  Amherst  College,  was  especially 
devoted  to  geological  study.  A  large  number  of  his  books 
and  papers  relate  to  geological  subjects,  which  he  helped 
to  make  popular;  among  these  books  are  "Economical 
Geology"  (1832),  "Geology  of  Massachusetts"  (1841), 
"The  Religion  of  Geology  and  Its  Connected  Sciences" 
(1851),  and  "Ichnology  of  New  England"  (1858).  He 


The  Scientists  425 

was  the  first  president  of  the  Association  of  American 
Geologists,  and  was  president  of  Amherst  College  from 
1845  till  1854. 

Louis  Agassiz. — The  celebrated  naturalist  Jean  Louis 
Rodolphe  Agassiz  (1807-1873)  was  of  Swiss  birth  and 
did  not  come  to  America  to  live  until  he  was  forty-one 
years  of  age,  and  had  already  become  famous  for  those 
studies  of  glacial  phenomena  set  forth  in  "  Etudes  sur  les 
glaciers"  (1840)  and  "Systeme  glaciaire"  (with  Guyot  and 
Desor,  1847).  For  twenty-five  years  (1848-1873)  he  was 
professor  of  natural  history  at  Harvard,  and  in  that  time, 
besides  training  some  of  the  most  eminent  of  living  Ameri 
can  scientists,  he  did  much  to  arouse  popular  interest  in 
science  and  scientific  progress.  Of  the  "  Contributions  to 
the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States"  which  he 
planned  to  publish  in  ten  volumes,  he  lived  to  issue  only 
four  (1857-1862).  For  Agassiz  Nature  was  "the  expression 
of  the  thought  of  the  Creator."  In  opposing  the  Darwinians 
as  to  the  origin  of  species,  Agassiz  unfortunately  took  the 
wrong  side  of  the  question  of  how  the  Creator  expressed 
His  thought;  but  he  remains  nevertheless  distinguished 
both  as  a  scientist  and  as  an  educator;  a  singularly  great 
and  gentle  nature,  strong  and  true. 

Arnold  Henry  Guyot. — Less  distinguished  than  his 
compatriot  Agassiz,  but  of  enduring  fame,  was  the  geo 
grapher  Arnold  Guyot  (1807-1884).  Born  near  Neuchatel, 
Switzerland,  he  studied  there  and  in  Germany,  receiving 
the  degree  of  Ph.D.  from  Berlin  in  1835.  Like  Agassiz 
he  became  known  for  his  glacial  discoveries;  and  like 
Agassiz  he  came  to  America  in  the  troubled  year  1848. 
From  1854  until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  geology 
and  physical  geography  at  Princeton.  His  text-books  and 
maps  revolutionised  the  teaching  and  study  of  geography. 
He  wrote  also  many  scientific  papers  and  memoirs,  among 


426  The  Nineteenth  Century 

which  may  be  noted  especially  those  describing  his  studies 
in  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  American  science  owes 
much  to  his  unselfish  devotion. 

James  Dwight  Dana. — James  D.  Dana  (1813-1895), 
born  in  Utica,  New  York,  was  attracted  by  the  fame  of 
the  elder  Silliman  to  Yale  College,  where  he  graduated 
in  1833.  To  the  Sillimans  he  became  allied  by  his  marriage 
with  Henrietta  F.  Silliman  in  1844;  and  like  them  he 
had  a  long  and  notable  career  closely  connected  with 
Yale  College,  where  he  became  (1835)  Silliman  professor 
of  natural  history  and  geology.  He  wrote  many  reports 
on  geological,  zoological,  and  mineralogical  subjects,  be 
sides  "A  Manual  of  Mineralogy"  (1851),  "A  Manual  of 
Geology"  (1862),  "On  Coral  Reefs  and  Islands"  (1853), 
"Science  and  the  Bible"  (Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1856-1857), 
and  "Corals  and  Coral  Islands"  (1872). 

Alexander  Winckell. — Another  noted  geologist  was 
Alexander  Winchell  (1824-1891).  Graduating  from  Wes- 
leyan  University  in  1847,  he  became  a  teacher  of  science  in 
various  schools,  and  in  1853  professor  of  physics  and 
civil  engineering  in  the  University  of  Michigan ;  being  soon 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  geology,  zoology,  and  botany. 
He  afterward  taught  at  Syracuse  and  Vanderbilt  Univer 
sities.  From  the  latter  institution  in  1878  he  was  dis 
missed  because  his  views  on  evolution  were  "contrary  to 
the  plan  of  redemption."  The  next  year  he  was  recalled 
to  Michigan.  Besides  being  a  leading  spirit  in  forming 
the  Geological  Society  of  America,  and  in  establishing 
The  American  Geologist,  he  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
especially  of  scientific  works  for  popular  use,  and  en 
deavoured  in  these  works  to  show  the  essential  harmony 
between  science  and  Christian  dogma.  Thus  he  did  the 
work  of  a  peacemaker  in  what  has  long  been  a  heated 
conflict. 


The  Scientists  427 

Nathaniel  Bowditck  (1773-1838)  was  a  pioneer  in  the 
study  of  astronomy  and  mathematics  in  America.  At 
first  a  cooper  and  then  a  ship-chandler,  he  was  studious, 
and  learned  Latin  in  order  to  read  Newton's  "Principia." 
As  supercargo  on  a  merchant  vessel  during  several  voyages, 
he  became  expert  in  the  theory  of  navigation  and  published 
in  1802  "The  New  American  Practical  Navigator,"  which 
in  a  revised  form  is  published  by  the  United  States  Hydro- 
graphic  Office  and  is  the  standard  compendium  for  navi 
gators.  In  1829  he  translated  Laplace's  "Me'chanique 
celeste,"  adding  valuable  notes. 

Benjamin  Peirce. — In  the  annals  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy  the  name  of  Benjamin  Peirce  (1809—1880)  has 
a  place  of  distinction.  Born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Bowditch,  and  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1829,  in  the  class  with  Holmes.  He  became  a  tutor 
at  Harvard  in  1831,  professor  of  mathematics  and  physics 
in  1833,  and  nine  years  later  Perkins  professor  of  mathe 
matics  and  astronomy,  holding  this  chair  till  his  death. 
From  1867  till  1874,  succeeding  Dallas  Bache,  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey.  He  wrote  an  impor 
tant  series  of  mathematical  text-books ;  "  System  of 
Analytical  Mechanics"  (1857);  "Linear  Associative  Al 
gebra"  (communications  to  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  collected  in  1870);  and  Lowell  Institute  lectures 
on  "  Ideality  in  the  Physical  Sciences  "  (1881).  He  obtained 
eminence,  it  has  been  said,  equally  in  mathematics,  physics, 
astronomy,  mechanics,  and  navigation. 

The  Sillimans. — In  the  annals  of  American  science 
no  other  name  is  so  long  and  favourably  known  as  that 
of  the  Sillimans.  Benjamin  Silliman  (1779-1864)  was  for 
fifty  years,  beginning  in  1802,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
Yale  College  and  founded  (1818)  The  American  Journal 
of  Science  and  Arts,  which  he  edited  for  twenty-eight 


428  The  Nineteenth  Century 

years.  His  son,  Benjamin,  Jr.  (1816-1885),  taught  and 
studied  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  in  Yale,  and 
was  associate  editor  (1838-1846)  of  his  father's  Journal. 
For  the  rest  of  his  life  he  was  a  professor  of  chemistry, 
first  in  what  is  now  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale, 
then  at  Louisville  University,  and  later  in  the  Academic 
and  Medical  Departments  at  Yale.  In  1858  he  published 
"First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy  or  Physics"; 
and  he  was  the  author  of  many  scientific  memoirs,  addresses, 
and  reports.  He  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  science-teaching 
in  America,  and  his  influence  on  scientific  education  was 
deep  and  abiding. 

Joseph  Henry. — Joseph  Henry  (1797-1878)  was  one  of 
the  most  illustrious  physicists  of  his  day.  Born  and 
educated  at  Albany,  New  York,  he  began  (1827)  researches 
which  resulted  in  important  discoveries  in  the  field  of 
electro-magnetism,  one  of  which  made  the  telegraph 
possible.  From  1832  till  1846  he  was  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton), 
and  from  1846  till  his  death  was  secretary  of  the  Smith 
sonian  Institution,  which  he  had  helped  to  organise.  He 
published  "Contributions  to  Electricity  and  Magnetism" 
(1839)  and  many  papers,  especially  in  the  Smithsonian 
reports.  A  brilliant  and  profound  investigator,  he  did 
signally  important  service  in  organising  great  scientific 
enterprises.  "To  Henry,"  says  Dr.  Woodward,  "more 
than  to  any  other  man,  must  be  attributed  the  rise  and 
the  growth  in  America  of  the  present  public  appreciation 
of  the  scientific  work  carried  on  by  govermental  aid." 

Alexander  Dallas  Bache. — Alexander  Dallas  Bache  (1806- 
1867),  a  great-grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  after 
graduating  in  1825  at  West  Point,  at  the  head  of  his  class, 
at  twenty-two  resigned  a  lieutenant's  commission  to 
become  professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  at 


The  Scientists  429 

the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Having  made  a  name 
for  his  researches  on  steam,  magnetism,  etc.,  he  was  called 
in  1843  to  be  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey,  and  performed  his  duties  with  marked  efficiency. 
Gifted  with  quick  apprehension  and  broad  intelligence, 
he  possessed  great  powers  of  leadership.  He  published 
nearly  two  hundred  scientific  papers,  memoirs,  and 
reports.  "To  him,"  declared  his  eulogist  Benjamin 
Gould,  "the  scientific  progress  of  the  nation  was 
indebted  more  than  to  any  other  man  who  had  trod 
her  soil." 

Matthew  Fontaine  Maury. — Matthew  F.  Maury  (1806- 
1873)  is  well  known  to  students  of  meteorological  science 
and  also  to  the  educational  world.  He  was  a  Virginian 
of  Huguenot  extraction,  who  went  to  sea  at  nineteen  and 
became  not  only  a  good  sailor  but  also  an  authority  on 
navigation.  His  "Treatise  on  Navigation"  (1835)  was 
favourably  received  abroad  and  was  used  as  a  text-book 
in  the  United  States  Navy.  As  "Harry  Bluff"  he  pub 
lished  in  The  Southern  Literary  Messenger,  about  1840, 
under  the  title  of  "Scraps  from  the  Lucky-Bag,"  a  series 
of  papers  on  nautical  matters,  which  brought  him  fame 
and  resulted  in  placing  him  in  charge  of  the  Depot  of 
Charts  and  Instruments  at  Washington,  an  office  which 
later  became  the  Naval  Observatory  and  Hydrographical 
Department.  One  of  his  first  tasks  was  to  compile  some 
charts  of  winds  and  currents.  These  charts  proved  im 
mensely  valuable  by  shortening  voyages  and  lowering 
the  expense  of  commerce.  His  "Physical  Geography  of 
the  Sea  and  its  Meteorology"  (1855)  at  once  took  the 
highest  rank  in  its  field,  and  the  geographical  text-books 
which  he  wrote  in  his  later  years  have  done  great  service 
to  education  and  in  a  revised  form  still  satisfy  the  needs 
of  many  schools.  He  was  the  author  also  of  many  pam 
phlets  and  official  papers. 


43°  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Josiah  Parsons  Cooke. — Josiah  Parsons  Cooke  (1827- 
1894),  a  pioneer  in  chemical  education,  was  born  in  Boston 
and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1844.  In  1851  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy  at  Harvard.  He 
did  much  to  further  the  study  of  chemistry  in  colleges 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  urge  the  laboratory  method  of 
instruction.  He  published,  among  other  things,  "Chemical 
Problems  and  Reactions"  (1853),  "Religion  and  Chem 
istry"  (1864),  "The  New  Chemistry"  (1871),  and  "The 
Credentials  of  Science  the  Warrant  of  Faith"  (1888). 

John  William  Draper. — John  W.  Draper  (1811-1882) 
is  known  in  the  annals  of  science  as  a  chemist  and  physio 
logist;  he  won  eminence  also  as  a  historian.  Born  at 
St.  Helens,  near  Liverpool,  the  son  of  a  Wesleyan  Methodist 
minister,  he  studied  chemistry  under  Turner  in  London, 
and  coming  to  America  in  1833,  graduated  in  medicine 
from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1836.  He  now 
began  investigating  the  chemical  action  of  light,  and 
published  in  1844  a  "Treatise  on  the  Forces  which  Produce 
the  Organisation  of  Plants."  His  memoir  "On  the  Pro 
duction  of  Light  by  Heat"  (1847),  a  valuable  contribution 
to  the  subject  of  spectrum  analysis,  appeared  thirteen 
years  before  KirchofTs  celebrated  memoir,  which  used 
to  be  thought  of  as  marking  the  beginning  of  spectrum 
analysis.  He  was  also  the  first  to  succeed  (1839)  in  taking 
portraits  of  the  human  face  by  photography.  In  1839 
he  became  professor  of  chemistry,  and  in  1850  of  physiology 
also,  in  the  University  of  New  York.  His  "Treatise  on 
Human  Physiology,  Statical  and  Dynamical"  (1856)  at 
once  took  its  place  as  a  standard  text-book.  He  wrote 
also  a  "Text-Book  on  Chemistry"  (1846);  a  "Text-Book 
on  Natural  Philosophy"  (1847);  "History  of  the  Conflict 
between  Religion  and  Science"  (1874),  an  able  and  com 
prehensive  treatment  of  a  vast  subject;  and  "Scientific 
Memoirs"  (1878),  a  collection  of  papers  on  radiant  energy. 


The  Scientists  431 

Two  of  his  sons,  Henry  and  John  Christopher,  also  became 
well  known  physiologists  and  chemists. 

Charles  Augustus  Young. — Of  the  more  recent  astron 
omers  of  America,  Charles  A.  Young  (1834-1908)  was 
one  of  the  foremost.  Born  in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire, 
the  son  of  Professor  Ira  Young  of  Dartmouth  College,  he 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  in  1853.  From  1856  till  1866 
he  was  professor  of  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  natural 
philosophy  in  Western  Reserve  University.  In  the  latter 
year  he  returned  to  Dartmouth  as  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  astronomy,  remaining  there  till  1877, 
when  he  became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Princeton.  He 
was  prominently  connected  with  several  important  astro 
nomical  expeditions  and  produced  some  notable  inven 
tions,  among  them  an  automatic  spectroscope  which  has 
been  widely  used  by  astronomers.  He  made  some  sig 
nificant  observations  on  the  sun,  including  a  verification 
by  experiment  of  Doppler's  principle  as  applied  to  light, 
by  which  he  was  able  to  measure  the  velocity  of  the  sun's 
rotation.  He  also  discovered  the  thin  solar  shell  of  gaseous 
matter  called  "the  reversing  layer."  He  wrote  "The 
Sun"  in  "The  International  Scientific  Series"  (1882),  "A 
General  Astronomy"  (1889),  "Elements  of  Astronomy" 
(1890),  and  "A  Manual  of  Astronomy"  (1902). 

Robert  Henry  Thurston. — Distinguished  as  an  educator, 
an  inventor,  and  a  writer  on  engineering  subjects  was 
Robert  H.  Thurston  (1839-1903).  He  was  born  in  Provi 
dence,  Rhode  Island,  and  graduated  from  Brown  Uni 
versity  in  1859.  During  the  Civil  War  he  served  as  an 
engineer  in  the  Federal  Navy;  in  1865  he  was  appointed 
assistant  professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  In  1871  he  became 
professor  of  engineering  at  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Tech 
nology,  remaining  here  until  1885,  when  he  was  made 


432  The  Nineteenth  Century 

director  of  Sibley  College  in  Cornell  University.  His 
writings,  always  clear,  exact,  and  authoritative,  have 
circulated  widely  among  engineers.  They  include  "A 
History  of  the  Growth  of  the  Steam  Engine"  (1878,  re 
vised  in  1901,  and  translated  into  French  and  German), 
"Materials  of  Engineering"  (three  volumes,  1882-1886), 
"Manual  of  the  Steam  Engine"  (1890-1891),  "Manual  of 
Steam  Boilers"  (1890),  with  other  valuable  works,  and 
about  250  scientific  papers.  Thurston  served  on  several 
important  government  engineering  commissions.  Of  him 
it  has  justly  been  said  that  "he  made  engineers  better 
scientists,  promoted  engineering  education,  helped  to  put 
engineering  upon  a  higher  professional  plane,  and  con 
stantly  was  on  the  watch  to  dispel  the  fogs  of  prejudice 
by  help  of  the  truths  of  science." 

The  Youmans  Brothers. — The  life  of  Edward  Livingston 
Youmans  (1821-1887)  was  spent  chiefly  in  popularising 
science.  Born  in  Albany  County,  New  York,  he  inherited 
a  strong  bent  toward  scientific  study.  For  many  years  he 
wrestled  with  threatening  blindness,  and  was  never  well. 
His  "Class-Book  of  Chemistry"  (1851)  was  remarkably 
successful.  "There  was,"  Mr.  Fiske  says  of  it,  "a  firm 
grasp  of  the  philosophical  principles  underlying  chemical 
phenomena,  and  the  meaning  and  functions  of  the  science 
were  set  forth  in  such  a  way  as  to  charm  the  student  and 
make  him  wish  for  more."  He  spent  many  years  in  de 
livering  lyceum  lectures,  for  which  he  was  well  fitted. 
His  "Handbook  of  Household  Science"  (1857)  was  a 
carefully  written  treatise  on  the  applications  of  science 
to  the  problems  of  food,  light,  heat,  and  sanitation.  Its 
popularity  led  him  to  plan  a  comprehensive  "Household 
Cyclopaedia"  which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  Besides 
editing  "The  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces" 
(1864),  a  series  of  expositions  by  Grove,  Helmholtz,  Mayer, 
Faraday,  Liebig,  and  Carpenter,  and  "The  Culture  De- 


The  Scientists  433 

manded  by  Modern  Life"  (1867),  a  collection  of  addresses 
and  arguments  in  favour  of  scientific  education,  Youmans 
published  several  addresses  and  papers,  and  did  much  to 
give  the  views  of  Darwin  and  Spencer  a  favourable  reception 
in  America.  He  was  the  originator  and  general  editor 
of  "The  International  Scientific  Series,"  of  which  fifty- 
seven  volumes  appeared  in  his  lifetime.  It  was  a  difficult 
but  eminently  useful  task  to  secure  popular  scientific  books 
by  masters;  and  the  series  of  seventy-nine  volumes  has 
done  much  for  education.  Youmans  was  also  the  founder 
of  The  Popular  Science  Monthly  (begun  in  1872)  and  edited 
the  first  twenty-eight  volumes. 

While  it  was  his  main  intent  [to  quote  Mr.  Fiske  again]  to  give 
in  popular  form  an  account  of  the  progress  of  the  several  depart 
ments  of  science,  he  never  lost  sight  of  the  aim  to  show  wherein 
the  scientific  method  was  applicable  to  the  larger  questions  of 
life — of  education,  social  relations,  morals,  government,  and 
religion. 

William  Jay  Youmans  (1838-1901)  first  studied  chem 
istry  at  Columbia  and  Yale  and  privately  with  his  brother 
Edward,  then  took  a  medical  course  at  New  York 
University.  After  practising  medicine  for  some  three 
years,  he  became  connected  with  The  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  which  he  edited  from  1887  till  1900.  He  wrote 
"Pioneers  of  Science  in  America"  (1895). 

Henry  Carrington  Bolton. — Henry  Carrington  Bolton 
(1843-1903)  did  much  for  the  bibliography  of  chemistry; 
his  "Select  Bibliography  of  Chemistry,  1492-1892" 
(1893-1905)  comprises  over  12,000  titles  in  twenty-four 
languages.  He  also  wrote  many  papers  on  the  history 
of  chemistry.  His  "Counting-out  Rhymes  of  Children" 
(1888)  gave  him  prominence  as  a  folklorist,  and  he  pub 
lished  also  some  important  papers  on  various  other  subjects 
in  folklore. 
28 


434  .The  Nineteenth  Century 

VII.       THE  PERIODICALS. 

Their  Importance. — No  apology  need  be  offered  for 
including  in  this  volume  a  section  on  the  history  of  Ameri 
can  periodicals.  As  Professor  Smyth  has  well  said,  in 
speaking  of  the  early  magazines  of  Philadelphia,  such  a 
division  "helps  to  exhibit  the  process  of  American  literature 
as  an  evolution."  Much  of  our  best  literature  made  its 
first  appearance  in  periodicals;  and  the  remuneration  re 
ceived  by  authors  from  this  source  has  great  significance 
in  the  economics  of  literature.  Likewise  much  of  our  best 
and  most  searching  criticism,  whether  reprinted  or  not, 
appeared  originally  in  newspapers  and  magazines,  which 
have  thus  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  making  of  American 
literature.  In  1810  there  were  only  about  thirty  periodicals 
altogether;  in  1900  there  were  239  classed  as  general 
and  literary,  some  of  them  having  a  considerable  cir 
culation  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  In  the  brief 
space  allotted  to  this  section  it  will  be  impossible  to  do 
more  than  to  mention  a  few  of  the  most  important  literary 
periodicals;  the  full  extent  of  the  journalistic  activity  of 
the  United  States  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in 
1900  over  eight  billion  copies  of  periodicals  were  cir 
culated,  having  a  market  value  of  nearly  $225,000,000. 

The  Eighteenth  Century. — The  eighteenth  century  will 
not  long  detain  us.  Only  ten  years  after  Edward  Cave 
had  founded  The  Gentleman1  s  Magazine  in  London  (1731), 
Andrew  Bradford  and  Benjamin  Franklin  founded  in 
Philadelphia  the  first  monthly  magazines  in  America. 
Of  Bradford's  venture,  The  American  Magazine,  edited 
by  John  Webbe,  only  three  numbers  appeared;  while 
Franklin  published  only  six  numbers  of  The  General 
Magazine.  In  the  course  of  the  century  several  others 
appeared,  among  them  The  American  Magazine  and 
Historical  Chronicle  (Boston,  1743-1746);  The  Independent 


The  Periodicals  435 

Reflector  (New  York,  1752-1753),  among  whose  contributors 
were  Governor  William  Livingston,  John  Morin  Scott,  and 
Aaron  Burr;  The  American  Magazine  (Philadelphia, 
1757-1758,  revived  in  1769),  which  Professor  Tyler  calls 
"by  far  the  most  admirable  example  of  our  literary  peri 
odicals  in  the  colonial  time,"  edited  by  Rev.  William 
Smith,  first  provost  of  the  College  of  Philadelphia;  The 
New  American  Magazine  (Woodbridge,  New  Jersey, 
1758-1760),  edited  by  S.  Nevil;  The  Royal  American 
Magazine  (Boston,  1774-1775);  The  Pennsylvania  Maga 
zine  (Philadelphia,  1775-1776),  edited  by  Thomas  Paine, 
to  which  articles  were  sent  by  Francis  Hopkinson,  John 
Witherspoon,  and  William  Smith;  The  Columbian  Maga 
zine  (Philadelphia,  1786-1790),  edited  at  first  by  Matthew 
Carey  and  later  by  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  and  changed  in 
1790  to  The  Universal  Asylum  (1790-1792;  to  this  Benja 
min  Rush  was  a  faithful  contributor) ;  The  American 
Museum  (Philadelphia,  1787-1792,  1798),  for  which 
Carey  abandoned  The  Columbian  and  which  was  "the 
first  really  successful  literary  undertaking  of  the  kind  in 
America";  The  Massachusetts  Magazine  (Boston,  1789- 
1796);  The  New  York  Magazine  (1790-1797) ;  The  Farm 
ers'  Museum  (Walpole,  New  Hampshire,  1793-1799), 
of  which  Joseph  Dennie,  the  editor  from  1796  to  1799, 
boasted  that  "it  is  read  by  more  than  two  thousand 
individuals,  and  has  its  patrons  in  Europe  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio";  and  The  Monthly  Magazine  and 
American  Review  (New  York,  1799-1800),  founded  by 
Charles  Brockden  Brown,  and  carried  on  in  1801-1802 
as  The  American  Review  and  Literary  Journal.  But  the 
reading  public  of  those  days  was  small,  and  other  conditions 
were  unfavourable  to  publishers;  in  consequence,  almost 
none  of  these  publications  lived  into  the  next  century. 

The   Nineteenth  Century. — Of    the   literary   magazines 
established  before  1850,  only  one  or  two  have  survived. 


436  The  Nineteenth  Century 

Yet  we  now  begin  to  see  the  periodicals  exhibiting  greater 
vitality;  and  gradually  they  come  to  deal  more  and  more 
with  native  literature  and  to  exhibit  a  greater  self-reliance 
on  the  part  of  American  writers.  The  first  half  of  the 
century  was  the  period  in  which  the  national  spirit  took 
deep  root  and  made  rapid  growth;  and  this  national 
spirit  is  fully  reflected  in  the  literature  of  the  time. 

In  1 80 1  Joseph  Dennie  and  John  Dickins  began  to 
publish,  in  Philadelphia,  The  Port  Folio,  which  was  destined 
to  live  for  twenty-six  years.  Among  its  contributors 
were  John  Blair  Linn,  author  of  "The  Powers  of  Genius," 
"The  Death  of  Washington,"  etc.;  Robert  H.  Rose,  author 
of  "Sketches  in  Verse";  John  Sanderson,  who  wrote  a 
book  of  Parisian  sketches  entitled  "The  American  in 
Paris";  Alexander  Graydon;  Gouverneur  Morris;  Joseph 
Hopkinson,  author  of  "Hail,  Columbia,"  and  of  articles 
on  Shakespeare;  and  Alexander  Wilson,  poet  and  ornith 
ologist,  whose  works  were  edited  by  Alexander  B.  Grosart 
(Paisley,  Scotland,  1876). 

From  1803  to  1811,  the  Anthology  Club  maintained 
in  Boston  a  sprightly  magazine  called  The  Anthology 
and  Boston  Review.  The  best  minds  of  Boston  contributed 
to  it ;  among  them  George  Ticknor,  William  Tudor,  Joseph 
Buckminster,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Dr.  John  Sylvester, 
Edward  Everett,  and  John  Gardiner.  The  magazine 
never  paid  expenses;  but  the  contributors  cheerfully 
paid  for  their  pleasure.  The  club  did  much  to  give  Boston 
its  literary  prestige,  and  was  the  forerunner  of  the  famous 
Boston  Athenaeum. 

The  Literary  Magazine  and  American  Register  (Phila 
delphia,  1803—1808)  was  likewise  founded  by  the  novelist 
Brown,  who  published  therein,  among  other  things,  his 
"Memoirs  of  Carwin,  the  Biloquist." 

Washington  Irving  began  his  literary  career  with  the 
publication  of  Salmagundi,  which  he  founded  in  New  York 
in  1807,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother  William  and  James 


The  Periodicals  437 

Kirke  Paulding.  The  little  sheet,  in  yellow  covers,  was 
issued  by  an  eccentric  publisher,  David  Longworth,  the 
front  of  whose  house  was  entirely  hidden  by  a  colossal 
painting  of  the  crowning  of  Shakespeare.  The  magazine 
was  modelled  after  Addison's  Spectator.  Paulding  was 
Launcelot  Langstaff  and  Irving  was  Pindar  Cockloft,  the 
poet.  "Our  intention,"  wrote  the  editors,  "is  simply  to 
instruct  the  young,  reform  the  old,  correct  the  town,  and 
castigate  the  age;  this  is  an  arduous  task,  and  therefore 
we  undertake  it  with  confidence."  The  work  soon  be 
came  popular  throughout  the  United  States  for  its  clever 
reproductions  of  society  foibles.  After  twenty  numbers, 
however,  it  was  discontinued,  because,  as  Paulding  said? 
"the  publisher,  with  that  liberality  so  characteristic  of 
these  modern  Mascenases,  declined  to  concede  to  us  a 
share  of  the  profits,  which  had  become  considerable." 
Twelve  years  later,  Irving  being  then  in  Europe,  Paulding 
attempted  a  second  series  (Philadelphia,  May  to  August, 
1820),  which,  though  inferior  to  the  first  series,  still 
contained  some  interesting  pages. 

The  Select  Reviews  and  Spirit  of  the  Foreign  Magazines, 
begun  by  Samuel  Ewing  in  Philadelphia  (1809),  later 
became  The  Analectic  Magazine  (1812-1821).  In  1813- 
1814  Irving  was  its  editor  and  contributed  to  it  some 
biographies  of  heroes  of  the  War  of  1812  and  some  of  the 
essays  afterwards  collected  in  "The  Sketch  Book."  Other 
contributors  were  Gulian  C.  Verplanck,  James  K.  Paulding, 
Alexander  Wilson,  and  William  Darlington.  The  Analectic 
published  in  July,  1819,  the  first  lithograph  made  in 
America. 

The  Portico  (Baltimore,  1815-1819)  numbered  among 
its  contributors  John  Neal,  whose  lengthy  review  of  Byron 
appeared  as  a  serial.  Neal  continued  to  write  for  The 
Portico  "until  he  knocked  it  on  the  head,  it  is  thought, 
by  an  article  on  Free  Agency." 

The  Idle  Man   (New  York,   1821-1822)   was  edited  by 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

Richard  H.  Dana  the  elder;  in  it  were  printed  his  novels 
"Tom  Thornton"  and  "Paul  Felton"  and  some  contribu 
tions  from  Bryant  and  from  Washington  Allston. 

The  New  York  Mirror,  a  weekly,  was  begun  in  1823  by 
General  George  P.  Morris  and  Samuel  Woodworth,  the  au 
thor  of  "The  Old  Oaken  Bucket."  Woodworth  soon 
gave  way  to  Theodore  S.  Fay  and  he  in  turn  (1831)  to 
Nathaniel  P.  Willis.  Morris  and  Willis  conducted  it  with 
great  success  until  1842.  Fay  contributed  "The  Little 
Genius,"  satirical  letters  on  New  York  society,  and  "The 
Minute  Book,"  letters  from  Europe.  Willis  spent  some 
years  abroad  as  foreign  correspondent  of  the  paper  (1832- 
1836),  his  letters  being  eagerly  read  and  widely  copied. 
Morris  and  Willis  subsequently  conducted  The  New  Mirror 
(New  York,  1843-1844),  which  in  October,  1844,  became 
a  daily,  and  The  Home  Journal  (New  York,  from  1846  on), 
which  as  Town  and  Country  still  continues. 

The  Atlantic  Magazine  (New  York,  1824-1825),  edited 
by  Robert  C.  Sands,  was  continued  till  1826  as  The  New 
York  Review  and  Athenceum  Magazine.  In  its  later  form 
it  was  edited  by  Henry  J.  Anderson  and  William  Cullen 
Bryant.  In  it  appeared  many  of  Bryant's  poems  and 
some  of  his  prose,  as  well  as  contributions  by  Longfellow, 
Dana,  Willis,  Bancroft,  and  Caleb  Gushing.  In  March, 
1826,  the  Review  was  merged  with  The  New  York  Literary 
Gazette.  In  July  this  was  in  turn  combined  with  The 
United  States  Literary  Gazette,  which  had  been  founded 
in  Boston  in  1825  and  edited  by  Theophilus  Parsons, 
the  new  title  being  The  United  States  Review  and  Literary 
Gazette.  James  G.  Carter,  and  later  Charles  Folsom,  were 
the  Boston  editors,  and  Bryant  was  the  New  York  editor. 
The  periodical  did  not  long  survive. 

The  American  Monthly  Magazine  (New  York,  1829- 
1831)  was  established  and  edited  by  Nathaniel  P.  Willis, 
who  enlisted  a  number  of  younger  writers,  such  as  Richard 
Hildreth,  Park  Benjamin,  Isaac  McLellan,  Albert  Pike 


The  Periodicals  439 

(" Hymns  to  the  Gods"),  Rufus  Dawes,  and  Mrs.  Sigour- 
ney.  In  1831  the  Magazine  was  absorbed  by  The  New 
York  Mirror,  of  which  Willis  now  became  an  associate 
editor. 

The  Illinois  Monthly  Magazine  (Vandalia,  Illinois, 
1830-1832),  edited  and  mainly  written  by  James  Hall, 
was  the  earliest  literary  publication  in  the  West;  it  was 
superseded  by  The  Western  Monthly  Magazine  (Cincinnati, 
1833-1836),  edited  by  Timothy  Flint. 

One  of  the  most  popular  of  the  Philadelphia  magazines 
was  Godey's  Lady's  Book  (1830-1877),  which  as  early  as 
1859  circulated  98,500  copies,  and  which  published  com 
positions  by  Paulding,  Park  Benjamin,  Holmes,  Irving, 
Poe,  Bayard  Taylor,  Longfellow,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe, 
Simms,  Willis,  Buchanan  Read,  Thomas  Dunn  English, 
and  Lydia  H.  Sigourney.  Poe's  contribution  on  "The 
Literati  of  New  York,"  published  in  its  columns  in  1846, 
created  a  great  sensation  at  the  time.  For  more  than 
thirty  years  Godey's  was  edited  by  Mrs.  Sarah  J.  Hale, 
who  is  also  famous  as  the  author  of  "Mary  had  a  little 
lamb,"  and  through  whose  exertions  our  national  Thanks 
giving  Day  was  secured. 

The  New  England  Magazine,  established  in  Boston 
in  1831  by  Joseph  T.  and  Edwin  Buckingham,  published 
contributions  from  Hildreth,  Park  Benjamin,  Whittier, 
Holmes  (who  published  here  the  first  two  papers,  never 
by  authority  reprinted,  of  his  "Autocrat"  series),  Long 
fellow,  William  and  Andrew  Peabody,  George  S.  Hillard 
("Literary  Portraits"  and  "Selections  from  the  Papers  of 
an  Idler"),  and  other  eminent  writers.  In  1835  Park 
Benjamin  took  it  to  New  York  and  continued  it  till  1838 
as  The  American  Monthly  Magazine. 

The  North  American  Quarterly  Magazine  (Philadelphia, 
1833-1838)  was  conducted  by  Sumner  Lincoln  Fairfield, 
author  of  "The  Cities  of  the  Plain,"  and  of  an  unpublished 
poem,  "The  Last  Night  of  Pompeii"  (finished  in  1830), 


440  The  Nineteenth  Century 

from  which  he  alleged  that  Bulwer,  to  whom  he  sent  the 
manuscript,  stole  the  plot  of  his  "Last  Days  of  Pompeii." 

Much  more  successful  was  The  Knickerbacker  or  New- 
York  Monthly  Magazine,  founded  in  the  same  year  and 
quietly  changed  with  the  seventh  number  to  The  Knicker 
bocker.  The  founder  was  Charles  Fenno  Hoffman,  who 
edited  three  numbers.  Some  contributors  were  Harry 
Franco,  Bryant,  Irving  ("Crayon  Papers"),  Longfellow, 
Lewis  Gaylord  Clark  (for  a  time  the  editor),  William  L. 
Stone,  the  brothers  Duyckinck,  Frederick  S.  Cozzens, 
Simms,  Park  Benjamin,  John  L.  Stephens  (letters  from 
Egypt),  and  Parkman  ("The  Oregon  Trail").  With 
some  exceptions  it  must  be  said  that  the  contents  of  The 
Knickerbocker  were  not  of  very  great  merit;  and  in  its 
later  years  there  were  too  many  stories  on  the  order 
of  "Carl  Almendinger's  Office,  or,  The  Mysteries  of  Chi 
cago,"  which  ran  as  a  serial  in  1862.  In  1864  the  title 
was  The  American  Monthly  Knickerbocker,  and  from  July 
till  October,  1865,  when  publication  was  suspended,  the 
title  was  The  Feeder al  American. 

The  Southern  Literary  Messenger,  published  monthly 
at  Richmond,  Virginia,  between  1834  and  1864,  exerted 
a  marked  influence  upon  the  literary  taste  of  the  whole 
South.  In  it  were  first  published  many  of  Poe's  stories 
and  criticisms,  and  he  was  the  editor  of  the  second  volume. 
Other  contributors  were  Paulding,  Park  Benjamin,  John 
W.  Draper,  Willis,  Henry  C.  Lea,  R.  H.  Stoddard,  Simms, 
John  B.  Dabney,  Matthew  F.  Maury,  Philip  Pendleton, 
and  John  Esten  Cooke,  Henry  Timrod,  Paul  H.  Hayne, 
Aldrich,  Moncure  D.  Conway,  Thomas  Dunn  English, 
John  P.  Kennedy,  James  Barren  Hope  ("Henry  Ellen"), 
and  W.  Gordon  McCabe. 

In  1837  William  E.  Burton,  the  comedian,  established 
in  Philadelphia  The  Gentleman's  Magazine  to  do  for  his 
sex  what  Godey's  was  doing  for  the  ladies.  Beginning 
with  July,  1839,  Poe  became  joint  editor.  The  next 


The  Periodicals  44i 

year  Burton  sold  out  to  George  R.  Graham,  who  com 
bined  the  magazine  with  The  Casket  (begun  by  Samuel 
Coate  Atkinson  in  1827)  to  form  Graham's  Lady's  and 
Gentleman's  Magazine.  For  years  Graham's  was  the  most 
famous  and  truly  national  periodical  in  America.  Graham 
understood  the  reading  public  as  did  few  other  men.  He 
paid  contributors  liberally  for  those  days,  and  collected 
a  brilliant  list  of  writers,  including  every  name  well  known 
in  letters  at  the  time  except  Irving,  who  confined  himself 
to  The  Knickerbocker.  To  Graham's  Longfellow  contributed 
his  "Spanish  Student,"  "Childhood,"  "The  Builders," 
"The  Belfry  of  Bruges,"  "The  Arsenal  at  Springfield," 
"Nuremberg,"  etc.  Poe  contributed  "The  Mask  of  the 
Red  Death,"  "The  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue,"  "The 
Conqueror  Worm,"  "Life  in  Death,"  and  some  minor 
pieces.  Here  were  first  published  also  many  of  Haw 
thorne's  "Twice-Told  Tales."  Simms,  Paulding,  Geo. 
H.  Boker,  Henry  W.  Herbert,  Robert  T.  Conrad,  E.  P. 
Whipple,  and  John  G.  Saxe  were  "principal  contributors." 
Lowell  and  Bayard  Taylor  were  editorial  writers.  Cooper 
received  $1800,  then  a  very  high  price,  for  "The  Islets 
of  the  Gulf,  or  Rose  Budd,"  later  republished  as  "Jack 
Tier,  or  The  Florida  Reefs,"  and  $1000  for  a  series  of 
biographies  of  distinguished  naval  commanders.  Nathaniel 
P.  Willis  wrote  much  between  1843  and  1851.  In  1852, 
Graham  boasted  that  in  the  decade  previous  he  had  paid 
American  contributors  between  eighty  and  ninety  thousand 
dollars.  The  circulation  of  the  magazine  for  a  long  time 
was  40,000  copies.  About  1854  Graham  sold  out.  In 
competition  with  Harper's  and  Putnam's,  Graham's  soon 
declined.  In  1859  its  name  was  changed  to  The  American 
Monthly,  and  it  quickly  disappeared. 

In  1839  Willis  began,  in  connection  with  Dr.  T.  O. 
Porter,  to  issue  a  weekly,  The  Corsair,  from  the  base 
ment  of  the  Astor  House,  New  York.  Willis  was  the 
chief  writer,  contributing  romantic  stories,  dramatic 


442  The  Nineteenth  Century 

criticism,  letters  from  Europe  entitled  "Jottings  Down 
in  London,"  and  gossip.  While  in  England  he  met  Thack 
eray,  whom  he  induced  to  contribute  eight  letters.  In 
all,  fifty-two  numbers  were  printed,  the  last  dated  March 
7,  1840. 

The  Transcendental  Movement,  which  will  be  discussed 
elsewhere,  found  expression  in  1840  in  a  Boston  quarterly 
called  The  Dial,  which  flourished  till  1844,  and  which 
was  edited  successively  by  George  Ripley,  Margaret  Fuller, 
and  Emerson.  The  last  contributed  more  than  thirty 
prose  articles  and  poems,  among  them  "The  Conservative," 
"Chardon  Street  and  Bible  Convention,"  "The  Tran- 
scendentalist,"  and  in  verse  "The  Problem,"  "The  Sphinx," 
and  "Woodnotes."  Bronson  Alcott  sent  his  "Orphic 
Sayings,"  the  mystery  of  some  of  which  has  never  been 
fathomed.  Other  writers  were  Theodore  Parker,  George 
Ripley,  Thoreau,  James  Freeman  Clarke,  William  H.  and 
William  Ellery  Channing,  Eliot  Cabot,  John  S.  Dwight, 
Christopher  P.  Cranch,  Mrs.  Ellen  Hooper,  and  Charles 
A.  Dana.  "Conceived  and  carried  on  in  a  spirit  of  bound 
less  hope  and  enthusiasm,"  the  magazine  encountered 
much  ridicule  among  the  Philistines.  The  Knickerbocker 
said  of  the  first  number: 

It  is  to  be  devoted  to  that  refinement  upon  common-sense 
literature,  just  now  so  much  in  vogue  at  the  East;  which,  like 
the  memorable  science  of  Sir  Piercie  Shafton,  shall  indoctrinate 
the  dull  in  intellectuality,  the  vulgar  in  nobility,  and  give  that 
"unutterable  perfection  of  human  utterance";  that  eloquence 
which  no  other  eloquence  is  sufficient  to  praise;  that  art  which, 
in  fine,  when  we  call  it  literary  Euphuism,  we  bestow  upon  it  its 
richest  panegyric. 

Yet  in  spite  of  such  strictures,  the  contents  of  The  Dial 
are  now  immensely  significant  of  the  social  agitation  then 
going  on  in  New  England;  and  much  of  its  matter  has 
become  a  part  of  our  permanent  literature. 

The   New   World,    a   large   weekly   established   in   New 


The  Periodicals  443 

York  by  Park  Benjamin  (1840-1845),  reprinted  much 
from  the  English  magazines,  but  included  also  contributions 
from  Epes  and  John  Osborne  Sargent,  James  Aldrich, 
Herbert,  Charles  Lanman,  Edward  S.  Gould,  Charles 
Eames  (editor  for  a  time),  and  John  Jay.  George  P. 
Putnam,  the  publisher,  was  for  some  years  its  London 
correspondent. 

It  was  in  Peterson's  Ladies'  National  Magazine  (a  fashion 
journal  begun  in  Philadelphia  in  1841)  that  Frances 
Hodgson  Burnett  published  her  first  story,  "Ethel's  Sir 
Lancelot"  (November,  1868).  The  magazine,  long  popular 
among  readers  of  light  literature,  was  a  few  years  since 
merged  with  The  Argosy. 

The  Union  Magazine  (New  York,  1847-1848),  edited 
by  Mrs.  Caroline  M.  Kirkland,  was  bought  by  John  Sartain, 
the  engraver,  and  William  Sloanaker,  who  had  withdrawn 
from  the  managership  of  Graham's,  and  reappeared  in 
Philadelphia  (1849-1852)  as  Sartain' s  Union  Magazine  of 
Literature  and  Art,  attaining  great  popularity.  It  published 
works  by  Longfellow  ("The  Blind  Girl  of  Castel  CuilleY' 
"Resignation"),  Boker,  Mrs.  Sigourney,  Lucy  Larcom, 
Henry  T.  Tuckerman,  Poe  ("The  Bells"),  Park  Benjamin, 
R.  H.  Stoddard,  and  Charles  G.  Leland. 

Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine  (New  York),  estab 
lished  by  the  Messrs.  Harper  in  June,  1850,  has  long 
enjoyed  a  deservedly  large  circulation.  For  a  considerable 
time  it  contained  chiefly  articles,  especially  fiction,  re 
printed  from  English  periodicals.  In  later  years  it  has 
included  much  more  from  American  writers,  and  its  con 
tents  have  in  general  been  of  a  high  order  of  merit.  Its 
records  of  travel  and  of  scientific  progress  have  been 
valuable.  For  many  years  the  "Easy  Chair,"  conducted 
by  George  William  Curtis,  and  later  by  William  D.  Howells, 
has  been  an  interesting  feature.  In  Harper's  first  ap 
peared  Howells'  "Annie  Kilburn"  and  "Their  Silver 
Wedding  Journey,"  Warner's  "Studies  of  the  Great  West" 


444  The  Nineteenth  Century 

and  "A  Little  Journey  in  the  World,"  Constance  F. 
Woolson's  "Jupiter  Lights,"  "East  ^Angels,"  and  "Anne," 
Poulteney  Bigelow's  "White  Man's  Africa,"  Stockton's 
"Bicycle  of  Cathay"  and  "The  Great  Stone  of  Sardis," 
John  Fox,  Jr.'s  "Kentuckians,"  Stephen  Crane's  "  Whilom- 
ville  Stories,"  Mark  Twain's  "Personal  Recollections  of 
Joan  of  Arc,"  Woodrow  Wilson's  "Colonies  and  Nation," 
Mary  E.  Wilkins'  "Portion  of  Labor,"  Mary  Johnston's 
"Sir  Mortimer,"  and  Margaret  Deland's  "Awakening  of 
Helena  Richie."  The  International  Magazine,  founded 
by  Rufus  W.  Griswold  in  New  York  in  1850,  was  two 
years  later  merged  with  Harper's. 

Putnam's  Monthly  Magazine  began  publication  in  New 
York  in  1853.  Its  earlier  editors  were  Charles  F.  Briggs 
(whose  pen  name  was  "Harry  Franco"),  Parke  Godwin, 
George  W.  Curtis,  and  George  P.  Putnam.  Among  the 
more  important  of  the  early  contributions  may  be  men 
tioned  "Shakespeare's  Scholar"  by  Richard  Grant  White, 
"Early  Years  in  Europe"  by  George  H.  Calvert,  "The 
Potiphar  Papers"  and  "Prue  and  I"  by  George  W.  Curtis, 
a  series  of  political  essays  by  Parke  Godwin,  "Fireside 
Travels"  and  "A  Moosehead  Journal"  by  James  Russell 
Lowell,  the  " Sparrowgrass  Papers"  by  Frederick  S.  Coz- 
zens,  "Cape  Cod"  by  Henry  W.  Thoreau,  "Wensley" 
by  Edmund  Quincy,  and  "Israel  Potter"  by  Herman 
Melville.  Putnam's  was  one  of  the  first  of  American 
magazines  which  restricted  its  pages  to  original  contri 
butions,  and  which  gave  special  attention  to  the  encourage 
ment  of  the  work  of  American  writers.  Published  till 
1857  and  from  1868  till  1870,  it  was  revived  in  1906  as 
Putnam's  Monthly,  under  the  editorial  direction  of  Joseph 
B.  Gilder  and  George  H.  Putnam.  Putnam's  is  still  to 
be  described  as  a  literary  magazine,  although  space  is 
given  also  to  illustrated  articles  on  popular  topics. 
Putnam's  arranges  with  certain  of  the  English  magazines, 
such  as  The  Cornhill  Magazine  and  The  Fortnightly  Re- 


The  Periodicals  445 

view,  to  share  contributors,  English  as  well  as  American. 
The  essays  of  Mrs.  Richmond  Ritchie  (Thackeray's 
daughter)  and  of  Mr.  Arthur  C.  Benson,  for  instance, 
have,  under  such  an  arrangement,  been  published  simul 
taneously  in  The  Cornhill  and  in  Putnam's. 

The  year  1857  is  memorable  for  the  founding  of  The 
Atlantic  Monthly  by  the  publishing  firm  of  Phillips  & 
Sampson  of  Boston.  James  Russell  Lowell  became  the 
first  editor,  accepting  the  post  on  condition  that  Dr. 
Holmes,  who  suggested  the  name,  should  be  engaged  as 
the  first  contributor.  Among  those  who  wrote  for  the 
first  number  were  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Emerson,  Motley, 
Holmes  (who  began  ''The  Autocrat"),  Whittier,  Charles 
Eliot  Norton,  J.  T.  Trowbridge,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe, 
and  Parke  Godwin.  Most  of  these  were  already  well 
known  authors.  The  list  of  contributors  to  The  Atlantic 
during  the  half-century  of  its  life  includes  all  of  the  most 
illustrious  of  American  writers — not  only  of  New  England, 
but  of  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  religious  thought  its 
attitude  has  been  reverent  but  liberal.  The  achievements 
of  science  have  been  set  forth  by  men  like  Agassiz,  Percival 
Lowell,  Simon  Newcomb,  John  Trowbridge,  George  F. 
Wright,  and  George  H.  Darwin.  The  new  political  and 
economic  questions  have  been  discussed  by  such  men 
as  President  Roosevelt,  former  President  Cleveland, 
Richard  Olney,  Woodrow  Wilson,  Carl  Schurz,  John  W. 
Foster,  Henry  Loomis  Nelson,  Edward  M.  Shepard,  Ben 
jamin  Kidd,  John  Jay  Chapman,  and  Thomas  Nelson 
Page.  The  fiction  of  The  Atlantic  has  been  produced 
mainly  by  American  writers — Hawthorne  ("Septimius 
Felton"),  Henry  James,  Jr.  ("Roderick  Hudson,"  "The 
Portrait  of  a  Lady"),  Aldrich  ("The  Stillwater  Tragedy," 
"Prudence  Palfrey"),  Bret  Harte,  Howells  ("Their  Wed 
ding  Journey,"  "A  Chance  Acquaintance,"  "The  Lady  of 
the  Aroostook"),  Mark  Twain,  Marion  Crawford  ("A 
Roman  Singer,"  "Paul  Patoff,"  "Don  Orsino"),  Stockton 


446  The  Nineteenth  Century 

("The  House  of  Martha"),  S.  Weir  Mitchell  ("In  War 
Time"),  Hopkinson  Smith  ("Caleb  West"),  Cable  ("By- 
low  Hill"),  Paul  Leicester  Ford  ("The  Story  of  an  Untold 
Love"),  Mary  Johnston  ("To  Have  and  to  Hold,"  "Aud 
rey"),  Sarah  Orne  Jewett  ("The  Tory  Lover"),  Margaret 
Deland  ("Sidney,"  "Philip  and  His  Wife"),  Kate  Douglas 
Wiggin  ("Penelope's  Progress"),  and  many  others.  An 
equally  brilliant  list  might  be  made  of  the  essayists  whose 
best  work  has  made  its  initial  appearance  in  the  form  of 
Atlantic  articles.  The  editors  have  been  Lowell  (1857- 
1861),  James  T.  Fields,  of  the  firm  of  Ticknor  &  Fields, 
then  the  publishers  (1861-1871),  William  Dean  Howells 
(1871-1880),  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  (1880-1890),  Horace 
E.  Scudder  (1890-1897),  Walter  H.  Page  (1897-1899), 
and  Bliss  Perry — an  illustrious  roll.  The  Atlantic  has 
never  changed  its  original  purpose. 

It  is  still  [to  quote  a  recent  writer]  an  American  magazine  for 
American  readers.  ...  It  holds  that  the  most  important 
service  which  an  American  magazine  can  perform  is  the  inter 
pretation  of  this  country  to  itself,  by  the  promotion  of  sympathy 
between  the  different  sections  of  our  varied  population,  the  frank 
examination  of  our  national  characteristics,  the  study  of  our 
perplexing  problems,  the  encouragement  of  our  art  and  literature, 
and  the  reinforcement  of  those  moral  and  religious  beliefs  upon 
which  depends  the  success  of  our  experiment  in  self-government. 

These  ideals  largely  explain  the  success  and  permanence 
of  The  Atlantic.  The  Galaxy,  founded  in  New  York  in 
1866,  after  furnishing  for  several  years  an  entertaining 
literary  and  scientific  miscellany,  was  in  1878  incorporated 
with  The  Atlantic. 

Lippincott's  Magazine,  established  in  Philadelphia  in 
1868,  continues  to  devote  its  chief  energies  to  fiction, 
though  it  has  also  published  some  notable  poetry.  Here 
appeared  Lanier's  "Corn,"  Edward  Kearsley's  "Camp- 
Fire  Lyrics,"  and  some  of  the  verse  of  Emma  Lazarus, 
Maurice  Thompson,  Paul  H.  Hayne,  Celia  Thaxter,  and 
Philip  Bourke  Marston. 


The  Periodicals  447 

The  Overland  Monthly  (San  Francisco,  1868-1875, 
1883  to  the  present  time)  has  faithfully  mirrored  the 
picturesque  and  stirring  life  of  the  Far  West.  It  absorbed 
The  Calif ornian  (1880-1882).  The  first  five  volumes  were 
edited  by  Bret  Harte,  and  a  large  number  of  his  stories, 
probably  forming  his  best  literary  work,  first  appeared  in 
its  columns. 

Old  and  New  (Boston,  1870-1875)  was  conducted  by 
Edward  Everett  Hale  with  the  intention  of  "squeezing 
from  the  Old  its  lessons  for  the  New"  and  of  combining 
amusing  with  instructive  literature  after  the  manner  of  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes. 

In  1870,  Dr.  Josiah  G.  Holland  and  Roswell  B.  Smith 
projected  Scribner's  Monthly  (New  York),  and  for  eleven 
years  Dr.  Holland  was  its  editor.  In  1881  it  was  changed 
to  The  Century  Magazine  and  under  the  editorship  of 
Richard  Watson  Gilder  has  taken  high  rank  as  a  dis 
tinctively  popular  magazine.  It  has  given  special  attention 
to  popular  history,  and  its  literary,  historical,  and  scientific 
articles,  generally  substantial  and  meritorious,  have 
appealed  to  a  wide  range  of  readers.  Like  Harper's,  it 
has  drawn  upon  all  of  the  leading  writers,  for  example 
Harte  ("Gabriel  Conroy"),  Cable  ("The  Grandissimes," 
"Dr.  Sevier"),  Howells  ("A  Modern  Instance,"  "A  Wo 
man's  Reason,"  "Silas  Lapham"),  Stockton  ("Rudder 
Grange,"  "The  Merry  Chanter,"  "The  Hundredth  Man"), 
Boyesen  ("Falconberg"),  John  Hay  ("The  Bread- Win 
ners"),  Henry  James,  Jr.  ("Confidence,"  "The  Bos- 
tonians"),  Eugene  Schuyler  ("Peter  the  Great"),  Joel 
Chandler  Harris  ("Uncle  Remus"),  Hamlin  Garland 
("Her  Mountain  Lover"),  Mary  Hallock  Foote  ("The 
Led-Horse  Claim,"  "Cceur  d'Alene"),  Marion  Crawford 
("Via  Crucis"),  Mark  Twain  ("Pudd'nhead  Wilson"), 
S.  Weir  Mitchell  ("Characteristics,"  "Hugh  Wynne"). 
Many  poems  of  merit  have  also  been  printed  in  The 
Century. 


448  The  Nineteenth  Century 

In  1887,  Scribner's  Magazine  was  established  by  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  and  has  since  taken  rank  as  among 
the  first  of  American  monthlies.  It  devotes  proportion 
ately  more  space  to  literature  than  is  given  by  its  com 
petitor,  The  Century  Magazine,  and  pays  less  attention 
to  so-called  popular  subjects.  Like  The  Century,  it  contains 
illustrations,  which  are  characterised  by  a  high  artistic 
standard.  Scribner's  is  under  the  editorial  management 
of  Mr.  Edward  L.  Burlingame.  Like  The  Century,  it  is 
published  in  London  as  well  as  in  New  York. 

Among  the  other  literary  periodicals  established 
within  the  last  quarter-century  are  The  Bay  State  Monthly 
(Boston,  1884-1885),  which  became  in  1886  The  New 
England  Magazine,  and  which  confines  itself  chiefly  to 
the  history  and  literature  of  New  England;  The  Forum 
(New  York,  since  1886),  devoted  to  the  discussion  of 
present-day  questions;  The  Cosmopolitan  (New  York,  since 
1886),  a  typical  popular  monthly  miscellany;  The  Arena 
(New  York,  since  1889),  which  has  been  a  fearless  exponent 
of  advanced  liberal  thought;  Munsey's  Magazine  (New 
York,  since  1891),  well  illustrated,  and  claiming  a  cir 
culation  of  over  600,000  copies;  McClure's  Magazine, 
established  by  S.  S.  McClure  in  New  York  in  1893,  which 
by  the  end  of  its  first  year  circulated  150,000  copies; 
The  Bookman  (New  York),  edited  since  1895  by  Harry. 
Thurston  Peck;  and  The  Reader  (Indianapolis,  Indiana, 
1902),  now  merged  in  Putnam's  Monthly. 

The  Annuals. — In  the  twenties  and  thirties  of  the  last 
century,  too,  the  annuals  were  popular  in  America  as  in 
England.  Almost  all  of  the  leading  authors  contributed 
to  them.  Among  the  best  were  The  Talisman  (New  York, 
1828-1830),  written  by  Bryant,  Verplanck,  and  Sands, 
and  illustrated  by  Inman,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  and  others; 
and  The  Token  (Boston,  1828-1842),  edited  by  S.  G. 
Goodrich  ("Peter  Parley")  and  (in  1829)  N.  P.  Willis,  in 


The  Periodicals  449 

which  appeared  contributions  by  Longfellow,  Hawthorne 
(some  "Twice-Told  Tales"),  Mrs.  Child,  Mrs.  Sigourney, 
and  Mrs.  Hale.  In  general,  however,  the  American,  like 
the  British  annuals,  included  a  large  amount  of  mediocre 
writing. 

The  Reviews. — The  American  reviews  begin  with  The 
American  Review  of  History  and  Politics,  founded  by 
Robert  Walsh  (Philadelphia,  1811-1813).  In  1815  The 
North  American  Review  and  Miscellaneous  Journal  was 
founded  in  Boston  and  has  consequently  had  the  longest 
life  of  all  the  periodicals  now  in  existence.  Its  founder, 
William  Tudor,  was,  we  have  seen,  a  member  of  the  An 
thology  Club,  and  a  writer  of  fine  taste,  who  later  did 
good  service  in  a  diplomatic  career  in  South  America.  The 
Review  was  at  first  published  every  two  months  in  numbers 
of  150  pages  each;  after  the  seventh  volume  it  appeared 
quarterly  in  numbers  of  250  pages  each  and  at  the  same 
time  ceased  to  publish  poetry  and  general  news,  thus 
conforming  more  closely  to  the  leading  type  of  contem 
porary  British  reviews.  The  most  voluminous  contributors 
to  the  first  sixty  volumes  were  Judge  Willard  Phillips 
(editor  in  1817),  Tudor,  Edward  and  Alexander  Everett 
(editors  in  1819-1822  and  1830-1836  respectively),  Jared 
Sparks  (editor  in  1822-1830),  Bancroft,  Francis  Bowen 
(editor  in  1843-1853),  Nathan  Hale,  George  S.  Hillard, 
John  G.  Palfrey  (editor  in  1836-1843),  Oliver,  William, 
and  Andrew  Peabody,  Caleb  Gushing,  Cornelius  C.  Felton, 
William  H.  Prescott,  and  Charles  Francis  Adams.  Much 
of  Whipple's  criticism  originally  appeared  here.  Among 
recent  editors  have  been  Lowell,  Charles  Eliot  Norton, 
Henry  Adams,  and  Henry  Cabot  Lodge.  Bryant's  "Thana- 
topsis"  first  appeared  here  in  September,  1817.  The 
book  reviews,  especially  between  1850  and  1870,  were 
probably  better  than  those  usually  found  in  any  other 
American  periodical.  In  recent  years  the  character  of 
29 


45°  The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  North  American  has  largely  changed.  It  now  offers 
monthly  a  collection  of  signed  articles  chiefly  on  current 
political  and  social  problems. 

Other  early  reviews  were  The  Christian  Examiner  and 
Theological  Review  (Boston,  1824-1869,  in  1870  merged 
with  Old  and  New) ,  in  which  appeared  some  of  the  most 
virile  criticism  of  the  time;  The  American  Quarterly  Re 
view  (Philadelphia,  1827-1837),  another  of  Walsh's  ven 
tures  and  a  quarterly  of  merit;  The  Southern  Review 
(Charleston,  1828-1832,  revived  1842-1855),  started  by 
William  Elliott  and  Hugh  S.  Legare;  The  Western  Review 
(Cincinnati,  1828-1830),  founded  by  Timothy  Flint;  The 
New  York  Review  (1837-1842),  established  by  Francis 
L.  Hawks  and  later  edited  by  Joseph  G.  Cogswell  and 
Caleb  S.  Henry;  The  Boston  Quarterly  Review  (1838-1842), 
edited  by  Orestes  A.  Brownson,  and  merged  with  The 
United  States  Magazine  and  Democratic  Review  (Washington 
and  New  York,  1837-1852),  which  became  The  United 
States  Review  (1853-1859);  The  New  Englander  (New 
Haven,  Conn.,  1843-1892),  for  religious,  historical,  and 
literary  articles;  The  American  Whig  Review  (New  York, 
1845-1852),  started  by  George  H.  Colton  and  later  edited 
by  Dr.  James  D.  Whelpley;  The  Literary  World  (New 
York,  1847-1853),  ably  edited  by  Evart  A.  Duyckinck; 
The  Massachusetts  Quarterly  Review  (Boston,  1847-1850), 
edited  by  Theodore  Parker;  The  New  York  Quarterly 
Review  (1852-1853);  and  The  National  Quarterly  Review 
(New  York,  1860-1880). 

The  Nation  was  founded  as  a  weekly  in  New  York  in 
1865  by  Edwin  Lawrence  Godkin,  who  remained  its  editor 
for  a  third  of  a  century.  Since  1881,  when  Mr.  Godkin 
assumed  the  editorial  control  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post,  The  Nation  has  been  issued  as  the  weekly  edition  of 
The  Evening  Post.  During  the  forty-three  years  of  its 
existence,  The  Nation  has  held  a  leading  position  in  Ameri 
can  criticism  and  also  as  an  exponent  of  American  politics 


The  Periodicals  451 

considered  from  an  independent  point  of  view.  From 
1 88 1  to  1905,  The  Nation  was  under  the  editorial  manage 
ment  of  the  late  Wendell  Phillips  Garrison.  It  is  now 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Hammond  Lamont.  The 
literary  department  is  conducted  by  Mr.  Paul  E.  More, 
who  had,  before  assuming  this  editorial  post,  made  a  name 
for  himself  in  literary  criticism. 

The  International  Review  (New  York,  1874-1883)  printed 
many  articles  of  solid  worth.  The  Dial,  semi-monthly, 
was  established  in  Chicago  in  1880  by  Francis  F.  Browne. 
It  has  made  a  noteworthy  reputation  for  a  high  standard 
of  American  criticism,  and  has  retained  the  services  of 
some  of  the  ablest  of  American  reviewers.  The  Critic 
was  founded,  as  a  weekly  literary  journal,  in  New  York, 
in  1 88 1,  by  Jeannette  L.  Gilder  and  Joseph  B.  Gilder. 
It  did  good  work  in  literary  criticism  and  in  the  presenta 
tion  of  literary  news  for  twenty- five  years,  when  it  was 
absorbed  by  Putnam's  Monthly,  The  Sewanee  Review,  a 
quarterly  founded  at  the  University  of  the  South,  Sewanee, 
Tennessee,  in  1892,  and  The  South  Atlantic  Quarterly, 
founded  at  Durham,  North  Carolina,  in  1902,  are  publishing 
the  best  literary  criticism  in  the  South  to-day. 

Newspapers. — The  plan  of  this  Manual  permits  but  a 
brief  reference  to  the  more  important  of  the  newspapers 
which  have  given  attention  to  the  interests  of  literature. 
The  New  York  Evening  Post  was  founded  in  1801,  and 
was  for  fifty-two  years  (1828-1880)  edited  by  Bryant. 
In  1819,  it  printed  the  well-known  "Croaker  Papers" 
by  Drake  and  Halleck.  James  K.  Paulding  was  an  oc 
casional  contributor,  and  Whitman  was  one  of  its 
Washington  writers  during  the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War, 
1 86 1.  Bret  Harte  was  for  a  time  on  the  editorial  staff, 
and  the  list  of  the  literary  critics  includes  the  names  of 
John  R.  Thompson  and  John  Bigelow.  During  the  years 
1881-1902,  The  Evening  Po$t  was  under  the  editorial 


452  The  Nineteenth  Century 

control  of  Edwin  L.  Godkin,  who  was  an  Irishman  by 
birth,  an  Englishman  by  education,  and  an  American 
by  what  may  be  called  natural  selection.  His  editorials 
in  The  Evening  Post  constitute  a  most  important  con 
tribution  to  the  literature  of  journalism,  or  it  may  be 
more  precise  to  say  to  the  journalism  of  literature.  They 
were  forcible,  witty,  and  incisive,  and  always  represented 
the  earnest  convictions  of  the  writer.  The  Evening  Post, 
which  still  gives  a  full  measure  of  dignified  and  effective 
consideration  to  literature,  is  now  under  the  editorial 
direction  of  Messrs.  Rollo  Ogden  and  Oswald  G.  Villard. 
Its  literary  department  is  managed  by  Paul  E.  More. 

The  New  York  Tribune  was  founded  in  1841  by  Horace 
Greeley,  who  must  also  take  rank  as  one  of  the  noteworthy 
American  editors.  For  thirty-one  years,  George  Ripley 
had  the  chief  responsibility  for  its  literary  department, 
and  among  his  associates  were  Bayard  Taylor  and  Mar 
garet  Fuller.  A  number  of  the  more  important  reviews, 
particularly  those  having  to  do  with  English  criticism 
and  with  poetry,  were  the  work  of  Edmund  C.  Stedman. 
Miss  Ellen  Hutchinson,  later  associated  with  Mr.  Stedman 
in  editing  the  "  Library  of  American  Literature,"  was 
for  many  years  on  the  literary  staff  of  The  Tribune. 

The  Sun  was  founded  in  1833,  and  was  for  many  years 
managed  by  a  third  great  American  editor,  Charles  A. 
Dana.  The  incisive  force  and  stirring  wit  of  Dana's  edi 
torials  have  probably  never  been  equalled  in  American 
journalism,  unless  it  were  in  the  columns  of  Godkin's 
Post.  The  Sun  has  always  given  much  attention  to  lit 
erature,  and  the  weekly  contributions  of  Mr.  Mayo  W. 
Hazel  tine  have  for  many  years  taken  first  rank  among 
the  critical  literary  essays  of  the  day. 

The  Times  was  founded  in  1851  by  Henry  J.  Raymond, 
an  early  associate  of  Horace  Greeley.  During  the  past 
twelve  years,  The  Times  has  given  a  larger  measure  of 
attention  to  literature  than  any  other  paper  in  the  country. 


The  Periodicals  453 

Its  literary  department  finally  became  sufficiently  impor 
tant  to  call  for  a  separate  printing,  and  it  is  now  issued 
as  a  weekly  literary  supplement.  The  present  editor  of 
the  supplement,  which  presents  a  convenient  and  com 
prehensive  summary  of  the  publications  of  each  week, 
is  Mr.  William  Bayard  Hale.  The  literary  supplement 
has  secured  for  its  regular  contributors  a  number  of  the 
more  capable  critics  of  the  day,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  Mr.  Edward  Gary,  Miss  Elizabeth  Luther  Gary, 
Miss  Hildegarde  Hawthorne,  and  Mr.  Montgomery  Schuyler. 

Of  the  other  New  York  papers,  The  World  was  founded 
in  1860,  and  during  the  years  1862-1876  was  associated 
with  the  name  of  Manton  Marble,  one  of  the  scholarly 
editors  of  his  day.  It  is  now  controlled  by  Mr.  Joseph 
Pulitzer.  The  Express,  founded  in  1836,  and  for  a  series 
of  years  the  organ  of  the  remarkable  brothers  James  and 
Erastus  Brooks,  was,  about  1880,  merged  with  The  Mail, 
also  founded  in  1836.  The  Commercial  Advertiser,  founded 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  became  about  1890  The 
Commercial  Advertiser  and  the  Globe,  and  later  The  Globe. 
The  Herald,  founded  in  1831  by  the  elder  James  Gordon 
Bennett,  is  still  under  the  control  of  the  Bennett  family. 
It  is  most  valuable  to  the  community  in  its  presentation 
of  news,  but  has  not  been  distinctive  on  its  literary  side. 
The  Eagle,  published  in  what  is  now  the  Borough  of 
Brooklyn,  was  founded  about  1850.  It  has  always  taken 
high  rank  for  independence  of  political  conviction  and 
also  for  the  excellent  literary  quality  of  its  editorials  and 
reviews.  It  has  for -many  years  been  under  the  editorial 
direction  of  St.  Glair  McKelway. 

In  New  England,  The  Boston  Transcript,  founded  in 
1830,  devotes  much  space  to  reviews  and  discussions  of 
literature  and  stands  high  for  its  catholicity  of  judgment 
and  discriminating  taste.  Among  the  papers  in  the  smaller 
New  England  cities  should  be  specified  The  Republican, 
of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  founded  in  1824,  the  owner- 


454  The  Nineteenth  Century 

ship  of  which  has  for  three  generations  been  in  the  Bowles 
family.  It  has  included  among  its  contributors  some  of 
the  ablest  writers  of  New  England.  The  Courant,  of 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  had  the  advantage  for  many  years 
of  the  editorship  of  Charles  Dudley  Warner. 

In  the  Middle  West,  the  Chicago  Tribune,  founded  in 
1847,  is  to  be  recalled  for  its  association  with  the  life-work 
of  one  of  America's  ablest  journalists,  Joseph  Medill.  In 
Cincinnati,  The  Commercial  had  the  advantage  for  many 
years  of  the  editorial  direction  of  Murat  Halsted.  In 
the  Southwest,  the  Louisville  (Kentucky)  Journal,  founded 
in  1830,  will  always  be  associated  with  the  name  of  George 
D.  Prentice.  The  Journal  was  in  1868  merged  with  The 
Courier  and,  as  The  Courier- Journal,  has  since  been  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Henry  Watterson,  a  survivor  of  the 
type  of  "strenuous"  Southern  journalism. 

The  Washington  National  Era,  published  between  the 
years  1847  and  1860,  is  to  be  noted  as  having  presented  to 
the  world  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  In  the  contest  for 
abolition  which  this  book  did  so  much  to  bring  to  a 
triumphant  end,  The  Liberator  (1831-1866),  carried  on 
by  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  and  The  National  Anti-Slavery 
Standard  (1840-1872),  conducted  by  Wendell  Phillips, 
should  also  be  mentioned.  These  two  men  differed  sharply 
from  each  other  from  time  to  time  as  to  the  methods  to 
be  pursued,  but  were  at  one  in  their  fierce  antagonism  to 
slavery  and  in  their  readiness  to  devote  their  lives,  if  need 
be,  to  its  extinction. 


AMERICAN    AUTHORS    REPRESENTED    IN    THE 
TAUCHNITZ  EDITION. 

Adams,  Henry     .          .          .          .          .          .1838- 

Alcott,  Louisa  M 1832-1888 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey         ....      1836-1907 

Atherton,  Gertrude  Franklin          .          .          .      1859— 
Bellamy,  Edward          .          .          .          .          .      1850-1898 

Benedict,  Frank  Lee    .          .          .          .          .1834- 

Bierce,  Ambrose  .          .          .          .          .1842- 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson    ....      1849- 

Carnegie,  Andrew         .          .          .          .          .1837- 

Chance,  Julia  Grinnell  Cruger  (Julien  Gordon)        1859— 
Churchill,  Winston        .....      1871— 

Clemens,  Samuel  L.  (Mark  Twain)  .          .      1835—  . 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore        ....      1789-1851 

Craigie,    Pearl    Mary    Teresa     (John    Oliver 

Hobbes)  ......      1867-1906 

Crawford,  F.  Marion    .          .          .          .          .      1854- 

Cummins,  Maria  Susanna      ....      1827-1866 

Davis,  Richard  Harding        ....      1864- 

D eland,  Margaret          .          .          .          .          .1857- 

Dixon,  Thomas,  Jr.       .....      1864- 

Eggleston,  Edward       .....      1837-1902 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo          ....      1803-1882 

Fletcher,  Julia  Constance  (George  Fleming)     .      1853- 
Frederic,  Harold  .          .          .          .          .      1856-1898 

Freeman,  Mary  E.  Wilkins    .          .          .          .1862- 

Gunter,  Archibald  Clavering  .  .          .      1847—1907 

Habberton,  John  .....      1842- 

Halsted,  Leonora  B.      .          .          .          .          .      1855— 

455 


456  American  Authors 

Harland,  Henry  ......  1861-1905 

Harte,  Francis  Bret      .....  1839—1902 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel.          ....  1804-1864 

Hay,  John  .          .          .>'        .          .          .  1838-1905 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell         ....  1809-1894 

Howells,  William  Dean          .          .          .          .1837- 

Irving,  Washington      .          .          .          .          .  1783-1859 

Jackson,  Helen  Hunt  (H.  H.)  1831-1885 

James,  Henry      .          ,          ....          .          .  1843- 

Kimball,  Richard  B.    .          .          .          .          .  1816-1892 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth       .          .          .  1807-1882 

Lorimer,  George  Horace        ....  1868- 

McKnight,  Charles        . '        .          .   ,  .  1826-1881 

Norris,  Frank      ...          .          .          .  1870-1902 

Osbourne,  Lloyd.          .....  1868- 

Parkes,  Elizabeth  Robins  (C.  E.  Raimond)       .  1862- 

Pike,  Mary  Hay  den  Green  (Mary  Langdon)     .  1825- 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan          .          ....  1809-1849 

Prentiss,  Elizabeth  Payson   ....  1818—1878 

Riggs,  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin  .          .       ,    .  1857- 

Roosevelt,  Theodore     .   •  .          .          .1858- 

Savage,  Richard  Henry         ....  1846-1903 

Sheppard,  Nathan 1834-1888 

Stanton,  Theodore        .          .          .          .          .1851- 

Stockton,  Frank  R.      .          .          .          .          .  1834-1902 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher         ....  1811-1896 

von  Teuffel,  Blanche  Wilder  Howard     .  .  1847-1898 

Wallace,  Lewis    ......  1827-1905 

Warner,  Anna  B.  (Amy  Lothrop)  .          .  1820- 

Warner,  Susan  (Elizabeth  Wetherell)      .          .  1819-1885 

Wetmore,  Elizabeth  Bisland,          .          .          .  1861- 

Wharton,  Edith 1862- 

Williamson,  Alice  Muriel        .          .          .         '.  1870- 


INDEX 


Aaron  in  the  Wildwoods,   214 
Abbot,   Ezra,  414 
Active  Service,  230 
Adam  Bede,  197 
Adams,  Abigail,  43,  45 
Adams,  Charles  Francis,  449 
Adams,  Charles  Kendall,  112 
Adams,    Henry,    89,    112,    114, 

212,  449 

Adams,  Herbert  Baxter,  113 
Adams,  John,   43,  45,  49,   251, 

371 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  361,1365-^6, 

377.  436 

Adams,  Samuel,  68-70,  360 
Addison,  D.  D.,  379 
Addison,  Joseph,  147,  241,  325, 

346,  437 

Address  on  West  India  Emanci 
pation,    386 
Ade,  George,  345 
Adeler,  Max.     See  Clark,  Charles 

H. 

Adirondack  Stories,  202 
Adrift  in  Dixie,  181 
Adventures  of  Ann,  The,  224 
Adventures    of  Captain   Bonne- 

ville,  93,  95,  324 
Adventures    of    Captain    Horn, 

The,  209 

Adventures  of  Francois,  The,  186 
Adventures    of    Harry    Franco, 

The,  etc.,   161 
Adventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn, 

The,  357 
Adventures  of  Robin  Day,   The, 

158 

Adventures  of  Tom  Sawyer,  The, 

357 

jEschylus,  294,  308 
Afield  and  Afloat,  210 


Afloat  and  Ashore,  126 

Aftermath ,   229,   278 

Afterwhiles,  318 

Agapida,  Fray  Antonio,  94 

Agassiz,  Jean  Louis  Rodolphe, 
276,  411,  420,  421,  425,  445 

Agnes  of  Sorrento,  170 

Agnes  Surriage,  204 

Akenside,  Mark,  249,  250 

Al  Aaraaf,  Tamerlane,  and  Mi 
nor  Poems,  270 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  331,  442 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  184 

Alder  brook,  165 

Aldrich,  James,  440,  443 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  181-2, 

207,  3T5>  3l6>  343-4,  445,  446 
Alexander,   Archibald,    389 
Alexander,  James  Waddell,  389 
Algerine  Captive,  The,  117 
Alhambra,     The.     See    Tales    of 

the  Alhambra. 
Alice  of  Old  Vincennes,  215 
Allen,    Alexander    V.    G.,    383, 

391,    392 

Allen,  James  Lane,   228-9,   23& 
Allen,  James  Lane  (of  Chicago) 

229 

Allen,  Paul,  90 
Allen,   Samanthy.     See  Holley, 

Marietta. 
Allston,  Washington,    163,   252, 

254,  264,  438 
Almanac,  27-8 
Almanac    Calculated^    for    New 

England  by  Mr.  Pierce,  An,  27 
Alone,  etc.,  173 
Ambassadors,  The,  195 
Amber  Gods,  The,  175 
Ambitious  Woman,  An,  204 
Amelia,    or     The    Influence     of 

Virtue,   121 
America,  245 


457 


458 


Index 


33, 


America  and  Great  Britain,  252 
American,  The,   193,   194 
American  Anthology,  317,  318 
American  Archives,  etc.,  98 
American  Colleges  and  the  Amer 
ican  Public,  396 
American    Commonwealth,    The, 

400 

American  Dictionary  of  the  Eng 
lish  Language,  413 
American  Eloquence ,  etc.,  379 
American     Encyclopedia,      The, 

332 

American  Flag,  The,  245,  254 
American  Geologist,   The,  426 
American  in  Paris,  The,  436 
American  Journal  of  Philology, 

The,  418 
American    Journal    of    Science, 

The,  424,  427 
American  Literature,  339 
American    Magazine,    The, 

434,  435 

American    Magazine    and    His 
torical  Chronicle,    The,   434 
American  Monthly,   The,  441 
American      Monthly      Knicker 
bocker,  The,  440 
American     Monthly     Magazine, 

The,   157,   160,  438,  439 
American  Museum,   The,  435 
American  Nation,  The,  etc.,  113 
American  Naturalist,   Tlie,  420, 

422_ 

American  Orations,  etc.,  379 
American  Philosophical  Society, 

The,  37 

American  Politician,  An,  216 
American  Quarterly  Review,  The, 

45o_ 

American  Review,   The,   411 
American   Review   and   Literary 

Review,  The,  435 
American     Review     of     History 

and  Politics,   The,  449 
American  Revolution,  The,  113 
American  Scholar,   The,  328 
American  Times,   The,  346 
American  Weekly  Mercury,  The, 

American    Whig    Review,     The, 

450. 

American     Wives    and    English 
Husbands,   234 


American  Woman's  Home,  The, 

343 

Ames,  Fisher,  361 
Amiel,  H.  F.,  in 
Among  my  Books,  336 
Among  the  Guerillas,  181 
Among  the  Hills,  302 
Among  the  Pines,   181 
Analectic  Magazine,  The,  437 
Andenken,    198 
Anderson,  Henry  J.,  438 
Andrews,  Mary  R.  Shiprnan,  236 
Andromeda,  212 
Angel  and  the  Nightingale,  The, 

252 

Anglomaniacs ,  The,  207 
Annabel  Lee,  270 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit, 
n  379,  382 
Anne,    191,  444 
Annie  Kilburn,   200,  443 
Anthology    and   Boston    Review, 

The,  436 

Anthology  Club,  The,  436 
Antony  Erode,  175 
Apology  of  Ayliffe,  The,  206 
Appleton's  Journal,    197 
Appreciation  of  Literature,  The, 

340 

April  Hopes,  200 
Arabian  Nights,  The,  307 
Arbuthnot,  John,  123 
Arcadian,  The,  218 
Archibald  Malmaison,  197-8, 
Archy  Moore,  159 
Arcturus,   161 
Arena,  The,  448 
Argonauts     of     North     Liberty, 

The,  189 

Argosy,  The,  443 
Argyll,  Duke  of,  277 
Arnold,  Matthew,  260,  261,  262 
Art  in  the  Netherlands,  196 
Art  of  Poetry,  243 
Artemus   Ward:  His  Book,   355 
Artemus    Ward:    His    Book    of 

Goaks,  355 

Artemus  Ward  in  London,  355 
Arthur  Bonnicastle,  174 
Arthur  Clenning,  134 
Arthur  Mervyn,  etc.,  118 
As  It  Was  Written,  222 
Ascutney  Street,  182 
Aspern  Papers,  The,  etc.,  194 


Index 


459 


Astor,  William  Waldorf,  212        ' 
Astoria,  etc.,  93,  95,  324 
Asylum,     The;    or    Alonzo    and 

Melissa,   121 
At  Close  Range,  228 
At  Last,  173 
At  Love's  Extremes,  214 
At  Magnolia  Cemetery,  268-9 
At  Sundown,   301 
At  Teague  Poteefs,  214 
Atalantis,  269 

Atheism  in  Philosophy,   381 
Athenaean  Society,  135 
Athenaeum,  The  (London),  134 
Atherton,     Gertrude     Franklin, 

234 

Atkinson,  Samuel  Coate,  441 
Atlantic   Essays,    337 
Atlantic  Magazine,  The,  438 
Atlantic  Monthly,  The,  137,  168, 

175,   176,   179,   181,   182,   183, 

186,   187,   189,   198,   199,  202, 

204,     207,     2l8,     220,     243,     260, 

287,  300,  316,  319,  333,  336, 

338,    340,    342,   408,   445-6 
Atlantic  Souvenir,    The,    145 
Audrey,  236,  446 
Audubon,     John     James,     229, 

418-9 

Auk,   The,  423 
Aulnay  Tower,  204 
Aunt  Serena,  204 
Aurelian,    160 

Austin,   Jane  Goodwin,    223 
Austin,   William,    134 
Authors  and  Friends,  338 
Autobiography  of  a  Quack,  The, 

1 86 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table, 

The,   180,   294-5,   333 
Average  Man,  An,  221 
Average  Woman,  The,  221 
Awakening    of    Helena    Richie, 

The,  227,  444 
Awkward  Age,  The,  194 
Azarian,   175 
Aztec  Treasure  House,  The,  etc., 

223 

B 

Bache,   Alexander   Dallas,   427, 

428-9 

Bacheller,  Irving.  234 
Bachelor  Maid,  A,  207 


Bachelor's  Christmas,  The,  etc., 

221 

Bachman,  Rev.  John,  419 
Backlog  Studies,  334 
Backwoodsman,  The,  255 
Bacon,  Francis,  388 
Bacon,  Leonard,  381-2,  383 
Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton,  419-20 
Baker,  William  Mumford,  185 
Balaam   and   His    Master,    etc., 

214 

Baldwin,  James  M.,  393 
Balestier, Charles  Wolcott,  220-1 
Ballad  of  Babie  Bell,  etc.,  316 
Ballads  and  Other  Poems,  278 
Ballads  of  New  England,  300 
Balzac,  Honore  de,  131 
Bancroft,    George,    97,    99-104, 

113,  438,  449 

Banker  of  B  anker  sville,  A,  214 
Bar  Sinister,  The,  233 
Barbara  Frietchie,  302 
Barefoot  Boy,  The,  302 
Barlow,    Joel,     245,     247,     248, 

346,  383 

Bartram,  John,  36 
Bates,  Arlo,  212 
Bates,   Edward,  317 
Battle -Ground,  The,  236 
Battle-Hymn  of  the  Republic,  297 
Battle  of  LovelVs  Pond,  The,  277 
Battle  of  Niagara,   The,  253 
Battle  of  the  Kegs,  The,  53-4 
Battle-Pieces,    263 
Baudelaire,  Charles,  156,  272 
Baviad,   250 
Bay  Path]  The,   173 
Bay  Psalm  Book,   The,   383 
Bay  State  Monthly,  The,  448 
Bayard,  James  A.,  362 
Beatrix  Randolph,  198 
Beautiful  Lady,   The,   233 
Bedouin  Song,  306 
Beechenbrook,    a    Rhyme    of   the 

War,  275 
Beecher,    Henry   Ward,    186-7, 

388-9,  390 

Beecher,  Lyman,  169,  380,  388 
Beers,  Henry  A.,   181 
Beginnings     of    New    England, 

The,  113 

Begum's  Daughter,   The,   204 
Behemoth,      a     Legend     of     the 

Mound-Builders,  160 


460 


Index 


Behind  Closed  Doors,  208 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  92,   116 

Bellamy,  Edward,  206 

Bells,  The,  270,  316 

Ben  Hur,  172,  202 

Benefits  Forgot,  221 

Benjamin,  Park,  256,  438,  439, 

440,  443 
Bennett,    James    Gordon,     Sr., 

453 

Benson,  Arthur  C.,  445 
Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  350,  366 
Berber,  The,  etc.,   166 
Bethune,  George  W.,  383 
Better  Sort,  The,  195 
Between  Whiles,  343 
Betz,  Louis  P.,  157 
Beyond  the  Gates,  191 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,   381,    389 
Bicycle  of  Cathay,  A,   209,   444 
Bigelow,  John,  451 
Bigelow,   Poulteney,  444 
Biglow  Papers,    286,    287,    290, 


.348,  350 
BUI  Nye  and  the  Boomerang,  356 
Billings,    Josh.     See    Shaw,    H. 


W. 

Biographical  Stories  for  Chil 
dren,  136 

Bird,  Robert  Montgomery,  158, 
178 

Bird-Lover  in  the  West,  A,  341 

Birds  and  Poets,  341 

Birds1     Christmas     Carol,     The, 

234  . 

Birds  in  the  Bush,  341 
Bishop's  Son,   The,    168 
Bismarck,    Prince,    107,    184 
Bits  of  Travel,  343 
Bjornson,  B.,  313 
Blackstone,  William,  Sir,  n,  70 
Blackwood's,    238 
Elaine,  James  G.,  367,  378 
Bleecker,  Ann  Eliza,    116 
Blessed  Saint  Certainty,   185 
Blind  Alice,   163 
Blind  Girl  of  Castel  Cuille,  The, 

443 
Blithedale  Romance,    The,    137, 

142 
Bloody     Tenet     of    Persecution, 

The,  1 6 
Bloody  Tenet  Washed,  The,  etc., 

16 


Bloody  Tenet  yet   more   Bloody, 

The,  1 6 

Blue  and  the  Gray,  The,  319 
Blue  Grass  Region,  The,  etc.,  229 
Bluff,  Harry.     See  Maury,  M.  F. 
Blumenbach,  J.  F.,  97 
Boccaccio,   219 
Boisgobey,  Fortune  Abraham  de, 

J54 
Boker,    George    Henry,    318-9, 

44i,  443 

Bolton,   Henry  Carrington,  433 
Bonaventure,  etc.,   210 
Bonnyboroiigh,    182 
Book  of  Roses,   no 
Bookman,  The,  448 
Books  and  Reading,  396 
Booth,  Edwin,  341 
Boston  Athenaeum,  436 
Boston  Book,  The,  134 
Boston  Courier,  The,  286 
Boston  Gazette,  The,  31,  49 
Boston  News-Letter,  The,  31 
Boston    Quarterly   Review,    The, 

45° 

Boston  Transcript,  The,  453 
Bostonians,   The,  193,  447 
Boucher,  44 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  427 
Bowen,  Francis,  395-6,  449 
Bowne,     Borden    Parker,     393, 

398-9 
Boyesen,  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  190, 

203,  237,  447 
Boyle,  Robert,  35 
Boys  at  Chequasset,  182 
Boy's  Town,  A,  198,  200 
Bracebridge,   Hall,    123,    324 
Brackenridge,  Hugh  Henry,  117 
Bradford,  Andrew,  434 
Bradford,  William,  9-10,  89 
Bradstreet,    Anne,     18-19,     21, 

295.  332 

Brainard,  John  G.  C.,  265 
Bravo,  The,  127 
Bread  and  Cheese  Club,  127 
Bread-Winners,  The,  213,  447 
Breitmann,  Hans.     See  Leland, 

Charles  Godfrey. 
Bressant,  197 
Brewer,  Thomas,  420 
Bricks  without  Straw,  211 
Bridge,  Horatio,  135,  141 
Briggs,  Charles  Augustus,  383 


Index 


461 


Briggs,  Charles  Frederick,    152, 

161,  440,  444 
Brinton,    Daniel  Garrison,   409, 

412-13 

Broadus,    John   Albert,    389 
Broadway  Journal,  The,  152,  286 
Brockden,  Charles,  118 
Bronson,  W.  C.,  250,  321 
Brooklyn  Eagle,  The,  308 
Brooks,   Erastus,  453 
Brooks,  James,  453 
Brooks,  Maria  Gowen,  163,265-6 
Brooks.  Noah,  .188 
"Brook's,  Phillips,  383,  389,  390-2 
Broomstick   Train,    The,   295 
Brother     Gardener's     Lime-Kiln 

Club,   356 
Brothers,  a  Tale  of  the  Fronde, 

The,  157 

Brougham,  Henry  Lord,  361 
Brown,  Alice,  224 
Brown,  Charles  Brockden,  117— 

21,  132,  148,  149,  435,  436 
Brown,  Goold,  414-15 
Browne,    Charles    Farrar,    353, 

354-5    T 

Browne,  Francis  FM  451 
Browne,  Ross,  306 
Brownell,  Henry  H.,  267 
Brownell,  W.  C.,  131,  141 
Browning,  Elizabeth  B.,  316 
Browning,     Robert,     195,     266, 

3l6,  4i3 
Brownson,    Orestes    A.,    162—3, 

45° 

Brutus,  255 

Bryant,    William    Cullen,     113, 
243,    245,    247,    256-62,    263, 
272,   274,   280,   293,   296,   325 
366,  438,  440,  448,  449,  451 
Bryce,  James,  114,  376,  400 
Buccaneer,  The,  264 
Buckingham,  Edwin,  439 
Buckingham,    Joseph    T.,    134, 

439 

Buckminster,  Joseph,  436 
Bulwer  Lytton,  84,  277,  440 
Bunner,  H.  C.,  212,  218-9,  238 
Bunyan,  John,  135,  208 
Burdette,    Robert    Jones,    355, 


Burglars  in  Paradise,  191 
Burial  of  the  Guns,  The,  etc.,  222 
Burk,  J.  D.,  92 


Burke,  Edmund,  59,  359 
Burlingame,   Edward  L.,  448 
Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  201- 

2,  443  ^ 

Burney,  Fanny,  357 
Burnham,  Clara  Louise,  224 
Burns,    Robert,    55,    254,    298, 

302 

Burr,  Aaron,  205,  365,  380,  435 
Burrcliff,  171 

Burroughs,  John,   171,  341 
Burton,  William  E.,  440 
Burwell  Papers,  5-7 
Bushnell,   Horace,  386-7 
But  Yet  a  Woman,  219 
Butler,  Samuel,  346 
By  Order  of  the  Company,  236 
Bylow  Hill,  211,  446 
Bynner,  Edwin  Lassetter,  204-5 
Byron,  Lord,  86,  243,  253,  254, 

264,268,269,305,314,343,437 


Cabin  Book,  The,  144 

Cable,  George  Washington,  210, 

212,  238,  446,  447 
Cabot,  Eliot,  442 
Cajutenbuch,     Das;     oder     Na- 

tionale  Charakteristiken,  144 
Calavar,   158 
Calcraft,   James,   409 
Caleb  West,  Master  Diver,   228, 

446 

Caleb  Williams,  119 
Calhoun,    John    Caldwell,    367, 

368,  389 

Calif ornian,  The,  188,  447 
Calif ornians,  The,  234 
Call  of  the  Wild,  The,  235 
Calvert,  George  H.,  268,  444 
Calvin,  John,  386 
Cambric  Mask,   The,   233 
Cambridge  Thirty  Years  A  go,  34  7 
"Camillus, "   361 
Camp-Fire  Lyrics,  446 
Campbell,  Alexander,  385 
Campbell,    Margaretta.  See 

Deland,    Margaret. 
Campbell,  Thomas,  86,  249 
Cape  Cod,  330,  444 
Captain  Bonneville,  95 
Captain  s    Youngest,   The,    etc., 

2OI 


462 


Index 


Carcelline  Emerald,  The,  207 
Cardigan,  233 

Cardinal's  Snuff-Box,   The,   222 
Career  of  Puffer  Hopkins,   The, 

161 
Carey,      Henry     Charles,     400, 

404-5 

Carey,  Matthew,  251,  404,  435 
Carl    Almendinger' s     Office,     or 

The  Mysteries  of  Chicago,  440 
Carlotta's  Intended,  231 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  100,  165,  167, 

314,  327,  328,  337 
Carman,  Bliss,  319 
Carpenter,    William    Benjamin, 

432 

Carruthers,  William  A.,   145 
Carter,  James  G.,  438 
Carter,    Robert,    285 
Carter   Quarter  man,    185 
Cartoons,   275 
Carver,  Jonathan,  82-4  ' 
Gary,  Alice,   168,  263 
Gary,  Constance.     See  Harrison, 

Mrs.  Burton  N. 
Gary,  Edward,  174,  453 
Gary,  Elizabeth  Luther,  196,  453 
Gary,  Phcebe,  263 
Casa  Braccio,  217 
Case  of  George  Dedlow,  The,  186 
Casket,  The,  441 
Cassandra  Southwick,  302 
Cassin,  John,  420 
Cassique  of  Kiawah,  The,  149 
Casting    Away    of    Mrs.    Leeks 

and  Mrs.  Aleshine,   The,   209 
Castle  Nowhere,  etc.,  191 
Castle  of  Otranto,   The,   116 
Caterpillar,  The,  253 
Cathedral,   The,  287,   290 
Cathedral  Courtship,  A,  234 
Catherwood,     Mary     Hartwell, 

227^8 

Cavalier,  The,  211 
Cavaliers  of  Virginia,   The,   145 
Cave,  Edward,  434 
Cecil  Dreeme,  176,   187 
Celebrity,  The,  233 
Centennial  Cantata,   273 
Century  Dictionary,   The,  417 
Century    Magazine,     The,     120, 

214,    219,    221,    222,    223,    319, 

335,    447,    448.        (See     also 
Scribner's  Monthly.) 


Century  of  Dishonour,  A,  343 
Cervantes,  Miguel,   117,   129 
Chadbourne,  Paul,  421 
Chainbearer,  The,  128 
Chalmers,  Thomas,  396 
Chambered  Nautilus,    The,    247, 

295,  296 

Chambers,  Robert  W.,  233 
Champion,  Tlie,  208 
Champions     of    Freedom,     The, 

124 
Chance    Acquaintance,    A,    199, 

445  . 

Channing,  Edward,   113 
Channing,   William   Ellery    (the 

elder),  72,  73,  331,  385-6,  442 
Channing,   William   Ellery   (the 

younger),    330,    331 
Channing,   William   H.,   442 
Chapman,  John  Jay,  445 
Character  and  Characteristic  Men, 

339 

Characteristics,  447 
Chardon  Street  and  Bible  Con 
vention,  442 
Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  The, 

267 

Charles  Elwood,  etc.,  162 
Charlotte    Temple,    117 
Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  374-5 
Chase  of  Saint  Castin,  The,  etc., 

227 
Chateaubriand,      de,      Francois 

Auguste,   244 
Chatelaine   of  La   Trinite,    The, 

230 

Chatham,  Earl  of,  35,  361 
Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  17,  287,  289, 

290,  336,  339,  416 
Cheerfid   Yesterdays,   187 
Cherry,    233 
Chevalier  of  Pensieri-Vani,  The, 

230 

Chicago  Tribune,  The,  454 
Chief  American  Poets,  The,  301 
Child,  Francis  James,  289,  337-8, 

409,  416 

Child,  Lydia  Maria,  133,  449 
Child-World,  A,  318 
Children  of  Destiny,  236 
Children  of  the  King,  The,  216 
Chimoera,   The,   138 
Chimes  from    a    Jester's    Bells, 

357  - 


Index 


463 


Choate,    Rufus,    371,    373,    377, 

39° 

Choir  Invisible,  The,  229 
Chosen  Valley,  The,  220 
Christabel,  2  54 

Christian    Examiner,    The,    160 
Christian   Examiner   and    Theo 
logical  Review,   The,  450 
Christian  Institutions,  383 
Christian  Nurture,  387 
Christian  Science,   358 
Christian   Union,   The,  349 
Christus,  281 
Chronicle    of    the    Conquest    of 

Granada,  93,  94-5,  324  . 
Chronicles    of     Aunt     Minervy 

Ann,  The,   214 
Churchill,  Charles,  346 
Churchill,    Winston,    233 
Cicero,  Marcus    Tullius,   34,   58 
Cigarette-Maker's  Romance,    A, 

216 

Cincinnati  Journal,  The,  388 
Circle  of  a  Century,  The,  207 
Circuit  Rider,  The,  etc.,  196 
Cities  of  the  Plain,  The,  439 
Clara  Howard,   1 1 8 
Clarence,  etc.,  133 
Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl 

°f.    J35 

Clart,   255 

Clark,  Charles  Heber,  355 

Clark,  Lewis  Gaylord,   160,  440 

Clark,  William,  83 

Clarke,  James  Freeman,  331,442 

Clarke,  McDonald,   256 

Clavers,  Mrs.  Mary.  See  Kirk- 
land,  Caroline  M. 

Clay,  Henry,  366-8,  369 

Clemens,  Samuel  L.  See  Twain, 
Mark. 

Cleopatra,   266 

Clergy  in  American  Life  and 
Letters,  The,  379 

Cleveland,  Grover,  232,  378,  445 

Cliff- Dwellers,  The,  230 

Cliff  ton,  William,  250 

Clinton  Bradshaw,  158 

Cloth  of  Gold,  etc.,  316 

Clovernook,  etc.,   168 

Coast  of  Bohemia,  The,  200 

Cobbe,  Frances  Power,  387 

Cobbett,   William,   251 

Cockran,    Bourke,   378 


d'Alene,  220,  447 
Cogswell,  Joseph  G.,  450 
Coke,  Edward,  Sir,   70 
Coleridge,  Hartley,  259 
Coleridge,    Samuel    Taylor,    86, 

151,  241,  243,  249,  252,  253, 

254,  255,  259,  264,  271,  326, 

327,  382. 

Collins,  Wilkie,   154,  208 
Colonel  Carter  of  Carter sville,  228 
Colonel  Carter's  Christmas,   228 
Colonel  Dunwoodie,  185 
Colonel    Starbottle's  Client,   etc., 

189 

Colonial  Ballads,   275 
Colonies  and  Nation,  444 
Color  Studies:  Four  Stories,  223 
Colton,  George  H.,  450 
Columbiad,  The,  247,  248 
Columbian  Magazine,  The,  116, 

435 
Columbus,     Christopher,     93-4, 

324 

Columbus,  Ferdinand,  94 
Comedies  and  Errors,  222 
Comic  History  of  the  United 

States,  A,  356 
Commemoration   Ode,    287,    289, 

290 
Commercial,     The     (Cincinnati) , 

454 
Commercial  Advertiser,  The  (New 


^- 

Commercial  Advertiser  and   The 
Globe,   The   (New  York),  453 
Common  Lot,  The,  335 
Common  Sense,  64-6 
Common  Story,  A,  221 
Conant,  Thomas  Jefferson,   382 
Conception  of  God,  The,  399 
Conception  of  Immortality,  The, 

399 

Concord  Days,  331 
Condensed  Novels,    188,   313 
Conduct  of  Life,   The,  328 
Confessio  Amantis,  416 
Confessions  and  Criticisms,   198 
Confessions  of  a  Frivolous  Girl, 

The,  221 
Confidence,  447 
Confidence  Man,  The,   165 
Coniston,   234 
Connecticut  Yankee  at  the  Court 

of  King  Arthur,  A,  357-8 


464 


Index 


Connection  between  Taste  and 
Morals,  The,  394 

Connolly,  James  B.,  236 

Conqueror,   The,   234 

Conquest  of  Canaan,  The,  233, 
248 

Conquest  of  Granada,  See 

Chronicle  of,  etc. 

Conquest  of  Mexico,  The,  etc., 
105,  108 

Conquest  of  Peru,  The,  105 

Conrad,  Robert  T.,  441 

Conservative,   The,  442 

Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  The,  no 

Constance  Trescot,   186 

Constitution,  The  (Atlanta),  213 

Constitutional  and  Political  His 
tory  of  the  United  States,  The, 

113 
Continuity  of  Christian  Thought, 

The,  383 

Conversations  from  Rome,  331 
Conway,  Moncure  D.,  440 
Cooke,  John  Esten,  171-2,  440 
Cooke,  Josiah  Parsons,  430 
Cooke,    Philip    Pendleton,    171, 

268,  440 

Cooke,  Rose  Terry,  223 
Cooper,    James    Fenimore,    iv., 

124,      125-32,      135,      147-8, 

149,      158,      160,      164,      191, 

244,  253,  254,  441 
Cope,    Edward    Drinker,    422—3 
Copperhead,   The,  etc.,   225 
Coquette,  The,  etc.,  117 
Corleone,  216 
Corn,  273,  446 

Cornhill  Magazine,  The,  444,  445 
Corsair,  The,  441 
Cosmopolitan,  The,  219,  342,  448 
Cotton,  John,  13,  1 6 
Coues,   Elliott,  423 
Count  Frontenac  and  New  France 

under  Louis  XIV.,  no 
Countess  Ida,  The,  158 
Counting-out    Rhymes    of    Chil 
dren,  433 

Country  By-Ways,  205 
Country  Doctor,   A,    205 
Country  of  the  Pointed  Firs,  The, 

205 
Coupon  Bonds,  and  Other  Stories, 

171 
Conrant,  The  (Hartford),  454 


Courier,  The  (Louisville),  454 
Courier -Journal,     The      (Louis 
ville),  454 
Courtship    of    Miles     Standish, 

The,  278 

Covering  End,  1 94 
Cowper,  William,  55,  260 
Cozzens,   Frederick  Swartwout, 


351,  440,  444 
Crabbe,  George,  303 
Craddock,  Charles  Egbert.     See 


Murfree,  Mary  Noailles. 
Crafts,  William,  268 
Cranch,  Christopher  P.,  442 
Crane,   Stephen,    230-1,  444 
Crane,  T.  Frederick,  214 
Cranford,  227 
Crawford,  Francis  Marion,  215- 

8,  343.  445.  447 
Crawford,  Thomas,  215 
Crayon  Papers,  440 
Crescent,  The  (New  Orleans),  308 
Crevecceur,  St.  John,  84-6 
Crime  of  Henry  Vane,  The,  218 
Crisis,  The,  66,  234 
Critic,  The,  451 
Critical     Period     of    American 

History,  The,  113 
Criticism  and  Fiction,   342 
Crittenden,  John  J.,  363 
Croaker  Papers,  The,  254,  451 
Croakers,  The,  255 
Crockett,   David,   145 
Cromwell,    157 
Crossing,  The,  234 
Crotalus,   313 
Crow's  Nest  and  Bellhaven  Tales, 

207 

Crucial  Instances,  235 
Crusade  of  the  Excelsior,  The,  189 
Cud  jo's  Cave,  171 
Culprit  Fay,  The,  253-4 
Culture    Demanded    by    Modern 

Life,  The,  432~3 
Culture's  Garden,  351 
Cumberland    Vendetta,    A,    etc., 

234 

Cummins,  Maria  S.A  172 
Cup  of  Trembling,  The,  220 
Curiosity,  264 
Curtis,     George    William,     142, 

173-4,     331"2,     377-8,     443, 

444 
Curtis,  Thomas  F.,  382 


Index 


465 


Gushing,  Caleb,  438,  449 
Cuvier,  Georges,  Baron  de,  423 


D 


Dabney,  John  B.,  440 

Daddy  Jake,  The  Runaway,  352 

Daily  Aurora,  The  (New  York), 

308 

Daisy  Miller,  193 
Dallas,  Alexander  J.,  435 
Damnation     of     Theron     Ware, 

The,  225 
Dana,    Charles   Anderson,    331, 

442,  452 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  426 
Dana,  Richard    Henry  (the    el 
der),   132,   163,  263-4,  438 
Dancin'     Party     at     Harrison's 

Cove,   The,  207 
Dante,  267,  276,  280,  287,  289, 

290,  308    312,  336,  337 
Dawns  rolks,  228 
Darlington,  William,  437 
Darrel  of  the  Blessed  Isles,  234 
Darwin,  Charles,  150,  393,  395, 

398,  399,  433 
Darwin,  George  H.,  445 
Daughter  of  the  Philistines,   A, 

203 

Daughter  of  the  South,  A,  207 
David    Alden's    Daughter,    etc., 

223 

David  Harum,  232 
Davis,  Jefferson,  206 
Davis,  John,    100,    121 
Davis,  Richard  Harding,  233 
Dawes,  Rufus,  439 
Dawn  of  a  To- Morrow,  The,  202 
Day,  Jeremiah,   380 
Day  of  Doom,  The,  etc.,  22 
Day  of  His  Youth,  The,  224 
Deacon's  Week,  The,  223 
Dearly  Bought,   224 
Death  of  the  Flowers,  The,  260 
Death  of  Washington,  The,  436 
Declaration  of  Independence,  5 1 , 

66-8,  89,  345 
Deephaven,   205 
Deer  slayer,    The,    126,    129 
Defence  of  the  Bride,  The,  209 
Defense  of  Poesy,  278 
Defoe,  Daniel,  116 
DeForest,  John  William,  1 74-5 


Deland,    Margaret,    226—7,   444 » 

446 

Deliverance,   The,  236 
Demetria,  2  64 
Deming,  Philander,  202 
Democracy,  212—3 
Democratiad,  The,  251 
Democratic  Review,  The,  308 
Dennie,  Joseph,  435,  436 
DeQuincey,  Thomas,  242,  327 
Descendant,  The,  236 
Desert  and  the  Sown,  The,  220 
Despot  of  Broomsedge  Cove,  The, 

208 
Destiny  of  Man   Viewed  in  the 

Light  of  His  Origin,  The,  398 
Detroit  Free  Press,  The,  356 
De  Vere,  Aubrey  Thomas,  277 
DeWitt,  Clinton,  362 
Dexter,  Samuel,  362 
Dial,  The  (Boston),  328,  331,442 
Dial,  The  (Chicago),  451 
Diamond  Lens,  The,  177 
Diana,    169 
Dickens,  Charles,   190 
Dickins,  John,  436 
Dickinson,   John,   43,    57—61 
Diplomatic  Adventure,  A,  186 
Diplomatic     Correspondence     of 

the  American  Revohition,  98 
Diplomatic  History  of  the  Civil 

War  in  America,  3  74 
Discourse  of  Matters  Pertaining 

to  Religion,  A,  387 
Discourse  on  the  Fall  of  Bona 
parte,  386 
Discoverer,  The,  318 
Discovery  of  America,   The,   113 
Dissen,  G.  L.,  97 
Dissertation  on   the   Canon   and 

the  Federal  Law,  A,  49 
Divers     Views,     Opinions,     and 

Prophecies    of    Yours    Truly, 

351  . 
Diverting  History  of  John  Bull, 

The,  etc.,  123 
Dixie,  268 

Doane,  George  Washington,  383 
Doctor  Grims haw's  Secret,  138 
Dr.  Breen's  Practice,    199 
Dr.  Claudius,  215 
Dr.  Heidenhoff's  Process,  206 
Dr.  Johns,   167 
Dr.  Latimer,  224 


466 


Index 


Dr.   Lavendar's  People,    227 
Dr.  Le  Baron  and  His 

ters,  223 

Dr.  Sevier,  210,  447 
Doctor  Zay,  191 
Dodge,  Mary  Abigail,  349-50 
Dollars  and  Cents,   169 
Dolliver    Romance,     Tlte,      137, 

138 

Dolly,  20 1 

Dolph  Heyliger,   123 
Don  Orsino,  216,  445 
Don  Quixote,   117,   129 
Doomed  Chief,  The,  159 
Doomswoman,  The,  234 
Dorothy  Deane,  206 
Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  373-4, 

376 

Dorval,  or  the  Speculator,  121 
Dowden,   Edward,    120,   313 
Down-Rasters,   The,   1 24 
Down  in  Tennessee,  181 
Down  the  Ravine,  208 
Downing,    Major   Jack.          See 

Smith,  Seba. 
Doyle,  A.  Conan,  154 
Dragon   of  Wantley:   His    Tail, 

The,  233 
Drake,    Joseph    Rodman,    245, 

253-4,  255,  451 
Dramas,   Discourses,    and   Other 

Pieces,  264 
Draper,  Henry,  431 
Draper,  John  Christopher,  431 
Draper,  John  William,  393,  430- 

i,  440 

Dream  Life,  167,  334 
Dred,   170 

Drift  from  Two  Shores,  189 
Drift  Wood,  326 
Drum  Taps,  309,  310 
Dryden,  John,  346 
Dudley,  Thomas,   134 
Duffels,    197 
Duffield,  George,  383 
Dukesborough   Tales,    184-5 
Dumb  Foxglove,  etc.,  224 
Dunbar,  Paul  Lawrence,  319 
Dunlap,  John,  50 
Dunster,  Henry,  33 
Duponceau,  Pierre  Etienne,  409 
Dusantes,   The,  209 
Dust,  197 
Dutchman's  Fireside,  The,  124 


Duyckinck,      Evert     Augustus, 

440,  450 

Duyckinck,  George  Long,  440 
Dwight,  John  S.,  442 
Dwight,    Timothy    (the    elder), 

245,  247,  248,  380,  383 
Dwight,  Timothy  (the  younger) , 

380 
Dying  Indian,  The,  249 


"Eagle,  The  (Brooklyn),  453 
Eagle's  Heart,  The,  230 
Eames,  Charles,  443 
Early  American  Novel,  The,  115 
Early  Bluebird,  An,  274 
Early  Years  in  Europe,  444 
East  and  West,   158,   168 
East  and  West  Poems,  313 
East  Angels,  191,  444 
Eastburn,  James  W.,  256 
Eben  Holaen,  234 
Echo  of  Passion,  An,  212 
Echoes  of  the  Foothills,  313 
Edgar  Huntly,  etc.,   118 
Edwards,     Jonathan,     24,     29, 

380,   383 

Edwin  Brothertoft,    176,    177 
Eggleston,  Edward,  .196-7,  212 
Eggleston,  George  Gary,  236 
Eichhorn,  K.  F.,  97 
Eight  Cousins,   184 
El  Fureidis,   172 
Elbow  Room,  355 


Eliot,  George,  170,  197,  322,  327 
Elizabethan  Drama,   The,  340 
Ellen,  Henry.     See  Hope,  James 

Barron. 

Elliott,  William,  450 
Elsie  Venner,  178-9,  295 
Elsket,  and  Other  Stories,  222 
Ely,  Richard  Theodore,  407-8 
Embargo,  The,   257 
Emerson,    Ralph    Waldo,    198, 
243,  267,  276,  283,  284,  285, 
290-4,    297,    308,    313,    322, 
327-9,    33°,    331,    333,    33^, 
442,  445 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis,  364 
Emmons,  Nathanael,  381,  384 
End  of  the  World,  The,  196 
England    Without    and    Within, 
338 


Index 


467 


English,  Thomas  Dunn,  439,  440 
English    and    Scottish    Popular 

Ballads,  338,  416 
English  Library,  The,  221 
English  Novel  and  Its  Develop 
ment,  The,  344 
Episodes  in   Van  Bibber's  Life, 

233. 

Equality,   206 

Errant  Wooing,  An,  207 

Essays  and  Literary  Notes,  305 

Essays  and  Notes,  334 

Essays  and  Reviews,  338 

Essays  from  the  Easy  Chair,  332 

Essays  in  London  and  Else 
where,  342 

Essays  of  Elia,  73 

Ethel's  Sir  Lancelot,  443 

Euripides,    141 

Europeans,  The,  193 

Eutaw,  149 

Eutaw  Springs,  249 

Evangeline,  161,  278,  281 

Evelina's  Garden,    22 5 

Evening  Journal,  The  (Albany), 
225 

Evening  Mirror,  The  (New 
York),  152,  270 

Evening  Post,  The  (New  York), 
145,  259,  325,  450-1,  45i-2 

Everett,  Alexander  Hill,  93,  449 

Everett,    Edward,   97,   98,    100, 

375,  377,  380,  436,  449 
Every  Boddy's  Friend,  354 
Evidences   of  Christianity,    The, 

394 

Ewing,  Samuel,  437 
Excursion,  The,  258 
Excursions  in  Field  and  Forest, 

33° 
Excursions    of   an    Evolutionist, 

39.8   . 

Expiation,  226 
Express,  The  (New  York),  453 


Fable  for  Critics,  A,   163,   286, 

32$,  348 

Faerie  Queene,  The,  283 
Fair  Device,  A,  221 
Fair  Fame,  204 
Fair  God,  The,  202 
Fair  Margaret,  217 


Fairchild,  Frances,  259 
Fairfield,  Summer  Lincoln,  439 
Faith  Doctor,  The,  197 
Faith  Gartney's  Girlhood,  182 
Falconberg,  203,  447 
Famous  Old  People,  136 
Fanny,  254 
Fanshawe,  135 
Far  in  the  Forest,  186 
Faraday,  Michael,  432 
Farmer  of  New  Jersey,  The,  121 
Farmer  Refuted,  The,  62 
Farmer's  Allminax,  354 
Farmer's  Journal,   The,    122 
Farmer's  Letters,   57-9 
Farmer's  Museum,  The,  435 
Fashion  and  Famine,  172 
Father  Brighthopes,  171 
Faust,   121,   141,  304,  306 
Faust,  A.  B.,   144 
Fawcett,  Edgar,  204,  212,  238 
Fay,   Theodore   Sedgwick,    158, 

438 

Fearful  Responsibility,  A,  199 
Fellowe  and  His  Wife,  A,  204 
Felton,  Cornelius  C.,  276,  449 
Female   Quixotism,    117 
Ferdinand  and  Elmira,    121 
Ferdinand    and    Isabella,     105, 

107,   108 

Fessenden,  Thomas  G.,   250 
Fichte,  Johann  Gottlieb,  395 
Field,  Eugene,  319,  351—2 


igene,  319,  35 
Ilenrv,   1 1 6 


rielding,  Henry,  no 
Fields,  Annie  Adams,  338 
Fields,  James  Thomas,  138,  276, 

338,  446 

-Figs  and  Thistles,  211 
Fillmore,  M.,  370,  375 
Finch,  Francis  Miles,  319 
Fireside  Travels,  336,  444 
First  Harvests,  218 
First  of  the  Knickerbockers,  The, 

l65 
First  Settlers  of  Virginia,    The, 

121 

Fisherman's  Luck,  340 
Fishin'  Jimmy,   224 
Fiske,     John,     113,     115,     393, 

397-8,    432,    433 
Fleetwood,   etc.,    163 
Fleming,  George.     See  Fletcher, 

Julia  C. 
Fletcher,  Julia  Constance,  212 


468 


Index 


Flight  of  Pony  Baker,  The,  200 
Flint,     Timothy,      133-4,     439, 

45° 
Flip;    and    Found    at    Blazing 

Star,  189 

Florence  Vane,  268 
Flower  and  Thorn,  316 
Flute  and  Violin,  etc.,  229 
Feeder al  American,  The,  440 
Folsom,  Charles,  438 
Fool's  Errand,  A,  211 
Fools  of  Nature,  224 
Foote,  Mary  Hallock,  220,  227, 

^447 

Footpath  Way,   The,  341 
Footprints,   315 
For  the  Major,  191 
Forayers,  The,  etc.,  149 
Force,   Peter,   98 
Ford,  Paul  Leicester,  232,  446 
Foregone  Conclusion,  A,  199 
Forest  Hymn,  260 
Forest  Life,  162 
Forester,  Fanny.       See  Judson, 

Emily  C. 

Forester,  Frank,  157 
Foresters,   The,   116 
Forman,  Justus  Miles,   236 
Forrest,  Edwin,  157,  158 
Forsaken,  The,  157 
Fortnightly  Review,   The,   444 
Fortune's  Fool,    197 
Fortunes   of  Oliver   Horn,    The, 

228 

Fortunes  of  Rachel,  The,  168 
Forum,  The,  448 
Foster,  Hannah  W.,   117 
Foster,  John  W.,  445 
Foster,  Stephen  Collins,  319 
Fox,  C.  J.,  361 
Fox,  John,  Jr.,  234,  444 
France,  An  Ode,  259 
France   and   England   in   North 

America,  no 

France  of  To-Day,  The,  340 
France  sea  da  Rimini,  319 
Francis,  Lydia  Maria,  133 
Francis  Berrian,  etc.,   133-4 
Franco,    Harry.         See    Briggs, 

Charles  F. 
Franklin,    Benjamin,    24,    27-8, 

33.  37.  43»   58»   64>   72,   74~7. 
98,    165,   241,   337,   345,   428, 

434 


Franklin,  Sir  John,  335 

Frederic,   Harold,    225-6 

Free  Joe,  214 

Free  Press,  The  (Newburyport) , 
298 

Free  Thoughts  on  the  Proceed 
ings,  etc.,  62 

Freeman,  Mrs.  Charles  M.  See 
Wilkins,  Mary  E. 

Freeman,  Mary  E.  Wilkins.  See 
Wilkins,  Mary  E. 

Freeman's  Oath,  The,  27 

Freiligrath,  F.,  281,  313 

French,  Alice,  226 

French  Dramatists  of  the  Nine 
teenth  Century,  340 

Freneau,  Philip,  42,  46,  50-1, 
54-5,  117,  246,  247,  248-9, 
251,  254,  257,  346 

rriends,  a  Duet,  191 

Frithiof's  Saga,   279 

Froissart,  Jean  135 

From  Ponkapog  to  Pesth,  344 

Frontiersmen,  The,  208 

Froude,  J.  A.,  109 

Fugitive  Slave's  Apostrophe  to 
the  North  Star,  The,  265 

Full  Vindication  of  the  Meas 
ures  of  the  Congress,  A,  62 

Fuller,  Henry  Blake,  230,  238 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  322, 
331,  442,  452 

Furness,  Horace  Howard,  339 


Gaboriau,  Emile,  154 
Gabriel  Conroy,  189,  190,  447 
Gabriel  Tolliver,  214 
Galaxy,  The,  192,  446 
Gallant  Fight,  A,  173 
Gallatin,  Albert,  363-4,  409-10 
Gallegher,  and  Other  Stories,  233 
Gamesters,  The,  117 
Gardiner,  John,  436 
Garfield,  James  A..,  211,  288,  395 
Garland,  Hamlin,  229-30,  447 
Garrick,   David,   59 
Garrison,  Wendell  Phillips,  451 
Garrison,    William    Lloyd,    298, 

299,  325,  372,  373.  454 
Garth,   197 

Gaskell,  Elizabeth  C.,  227 
Gates  Ajar,  The,  191 


Index 


469 


Gaut  Gurley,  etc.,  159 

Gay,  Sydney  H.,   113 

Gay  Conspiracy,  A,  233 

Gayworthys,   The,   182 

General  History  of  Connecticut, 

A,  81-82 

General  Magazine,   The,  434 
Genesis    of    the    New    England 

Churches,  382 
Gentleman  from   Indiana,    The, 

233 

Gentleman  of  Leisure,  A,  204 
Gentleman    Vagabond,    A,    etc., 

228 

Gentleman1  s  Magazine,  The  (Lon 
don),  434 
Gentleman's       Magazine,       The 

(Philadelphia),  440 
George,  Henry,  400,  406 
George    Fox  Digged    out  of   his 

Burrows,  16 
George's  Mother,  230 
Georgia  Scenes,  Characters,  and 

Incidents,   146 
Georgia  Sketches,  184 
Ghost  of  Guy  Thyrle,  The,  204 
Gifford,  William,  250 
Gift,  The,  149 
Gift  from  the  Grave,  A,  235 
Gilded  Age,  The,  203,  357 
Gilder,  Jeannette  L.,  451 
Gilder,  Joseph  B.,  444,  451 
Gilder,    Richard    Watson,    319, 

447 

Gildersleeve,  Basil  Lanneau, 
409,  418 

Giles,  William  Branch,  362 

Gilmore,  James  Roberts,  181 

Givers,  The,  325 

Gladiator,  The,   158 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  150, 
277 

Glasgow,  Ellen,   236 

Gleanings  from  Venetian  His 
tory,  343 

Globe,  The  (New  York),  453 

Godey's  Lady's  Book,  439,  440 

Godkin,  Edwin  Lawrence,  450, 

God  s     Controversy     with     New 

England,   2 1 

Godwin,  Parke,  444,  445 
Godwin,     William,      119,      120, 

JSS.    J48 


Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang,  von, 
84,  121,  280,  281,  304,  305, 
306 

Gold  Foil,  335 
Gold  of  Chickaree,   The,   169 
Golden  Bowl,  The,   195 
Golden  Calf,  T,.e,  203 
Golden    Era,     The    (San    Fran 
cisco),  1 88 

Golden  House,  The,  203 
Golden  Ingot,  The,  177 
Golden  Legend,  The,  169,  278, 

282,  306 

Golden  Rod,   207 
Golden  Wedding,  The,  etc.,  231 
Goldsmith,     Oliver,     248,     324, 

325.  346 < 

Good  Americans,  207 
Good-Bye  my  Fancy,  310,  343 
Good  Gray  Poet,  The,  309 
Goodrich,  Chauncey  Allen,  389 
Goodrich,  Samuel  G.,  91,  448 
'Gordon  Keith,  222 
Gore,  Christopher,  362,  370 
Gospel  of  Freedom,  The,  234 
Gough,  John  B.,  377 
Gould,   Benjamin,  429 
Gould,  Edward  S.,  434 
Gower,  John,  416 
Grace  Seymour,    158 
Graffiti  d' Italia,   266 
Graham,  George  R.,  441 
Graham's    Magazine,    151,    172, 

285,  327,  441,  443 
Granada.       See  Chronicle  of  the 

Conquest  of,  etc. 
Grandfather's  Chair,   136 
Grandissimes,  The,  210,  447 
Grant,  Robert,  221 
Gray,  Asa,  424 
Gray  Days  and  Gold,  341 
Graydon,  Alexander,  436 
Grayling,  or  Murder   Will  Out, 

149 

Grayson,  William  J.,  268 
Graysons,  The,  etc.,   196-7,  212 
Great  K.  and  A.  Train  Robbery, 

The,  232 

Great  Scoop,  The,  236 
Great  Stone  Face,  The,  243 
Great  Stone  of  Sardis,   The,  444 
Greater  Inclination,  The,  235 
Greeley,  Horace,  452 
Green,  Anna  Katharine,   208-9 


470 


Index 


Green,  William  Henry,   382 
Green  Mountain  Boys,  The,  etc., 

Greenfield  Hill,  248 

Greifenstein,   216 

Greyslaer,  1 60 

Grinnell  Expeditions,  The,  335 

Griswold,  Rufus  W.,  444 

Grosart,   Alexander   B,,   436 

Grotius,  Hugo,  70 

Grove,  Sir  William  Robert,  432 

Guardian   Angel,    The,    179-80, 

295 

Guenn,  204 
Guerndale,    218 
Guillotina,  251 
Gulliver's    Travels,    166 
Gunnar,  A  Norse  Romance,  203 
Gunter,     Archibald     Clavering, 

226 

Guy  Rivers,  144,  148 
Guyot,  Arnold  Henry,  425-6 


H 


H.,    H.       See    Jackson,     Helen 

Fiske. 

Hackett,  Horatio  Balch,  382 
Hadad,  264 
Hagar,   1 68 

Hail  Columbia,  245,  251,  436 
Haldeman,     Samuel     Stehman, 

415-6 
Hale,    Edward   Everett,    167-8,, 

TT  239,  336-7,  447 
Hale,  Nathan,  449 
Hale,  Sarah  J.,  439,  449 
Half-Century  of  Conflict,  A,  no 
Hall,  G.  Stanley,  393 
Hall,  James,   159,  439 
Hallam,  Henry,  TOO 
Halleck,  Fitz-Greene,  246,  253, 

254-5,  256,  451 
Halleck,  Henry  Wager,  404 
Hallock,    Mary.          See    Foote, 

Mary  H. 

Halsey,  Francis  W.,  117 
Halsted,  Murat,  454 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  61-3,  115, 

234,  251,  361,  380 
Hamilton,     Gail.       See    Dodge, 

Mary  Abigail. 

Hamilton,  William,  Sir,  395 
Hancock,  John,   59 


Hand  and  Ring,  208 
Hand  of  Lincoln,  The,  318 
Handbook  of  Household  Science, 

432 

Hannah  Thurston,  183 
Hans  Breitmann  Ballads,    315, 

351 

Hansen,  P.  A.,  304 
Happy  Dodd,  223 
Happy  Valley,  The,  191 
Harben,  William  N.,  236 
Hardy,  Arthur  Sherburne,  219- 

20 

Harland,  Henry,  221-2 
Harland,  Marion,   173 
Harley,  L.  R.,  402 
Harper's  Bazar,  378 
Harper's    Magazine,    191,     199, 

332,  342,  378,  441,  443-4,  447 
Harpers  Weekly,  173,  185,  378 
Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  213-4, 

352,  447 

Harris,  Miriam  Coles,  176 
Harris,    William    Torrey,    393, 

T   397 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  378 
Harrison,  Mrs.  Burton  N.,  206-7 
Harrison,   William  Henry,   370, 

375 

Hart,   Albert   Bushnell,    113 
Hart,  John  S.,  321,  379 
Harte,     Francis    Bret,     iJ 

237,   3J3>   3T4,   445,   447,   45  * 
Hassan  to  his  Mare,  306 
Hasty  Pudding,  The,  248,  346 
Haunted  Hearts,  172 
Haunted  Merchant,  The,  161 
Haunts  of  Men,  The,  233 
Haverhill  Gazette,   The,  298 
Hawkeye,  The,  356 
Hawks,  Francis  L.,  450 
Hawks  of  Hawk  Hollow,  The,  158 
Haworth's,  201 
Hawthorne,  Hildegarde,  453 
Hawthorne,    Julian,     139,     181, 

I97.  237,  342 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  iv.,  116, 
120,  134-43,  156,  165,  169, 
177,  181,  212,  239,  243,  275, 
276,  281,  302,  315,  342,  441, 

445,  449 

Hay,  John,  213,  319,  447 
Hayes,  Henry.     See  Kirk,  Ellen 

Olney. 


Index 


471 


Hayes,  R.  B.,  288 

Hayne,     Paul    Hamilton,     269, 

440,  446 
Hayne,  Robert  Young,  360,  368- 

9>  37° 
Hazard    of   New    Fortunes,    A, 

200 

Hazel  Blossoms,  300 
Hazeltine,  Mayo  W.,  452 
Hazlitt,  William,  86 
He  and  She,  266 
Headsman,  The,  127 
Heart  of  Rome,  The,  217 
Heart  of  Toil,  The,  226 
Hearth  and  Home,   196,   209 
Heart's  Highway,  The,  225 
Hearts  of  Oak,  59 
Heartsease  and  Rue,  288 
Heathen  Chinee,  The,  313 
Hedge,  Frederick  Henry,  380-1 
Heeren,  A.  H.  L.,  97,  100 
Hegel,    George   Wilhelm   Fried- 
rich,  397,  399 
Heidenvnauer ,  The,  127 
Heiress  of  Greenhurst,   The,   173 
Helen  Troy,  207 
Helmholtz,     Hermann     Ludwig 

Ferdinand,   432 
Henry,  Caleb  S.,  450 
Henry,  Joseph,  411,  420,  428 
Henry,  Patrick,  360,  363,  365 
Hephzibah   Guinness,    186 
Her  Mountain  Lover,  230,  447 
Herald,   The   (New  York),   235, 

453 
Herbert,    Henry   William,    157, 

441,   443 
Heresy  of  Mehetabel  Clark,  The, 

224 

Hermann  und  Dorothea,  281 
Hermione,  and  Other  Poems,  314 
Hermitage,     and    Later    Poems, 

The,  314 

Herrick,  Robert,   234-5 
Hiawatha,  278,  281 
Hickok,  Laurens  P.,  395 
Hidden  Path,  The,  173 
Higginson,  Ella,  238 
Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth, 

187    330,  336-7 
High  Noon,  224 

High  Tide  at  Gettysburg,  The,  319 
Hildreth,     Richard,     104,     159, 

383,  438>  439 


Hill,  David  Jayne,  114 
Hillard,  George  S.,  439,  449 
Hillhouse,  James  A.,  264,  363 
Hills  of  the  Shatemuc,  The,   169 
Hireling  and  the  Slave,  The,  268 
His  Daughter  First,  220 
His  Grace  of  Osmonde,  202 
His  Majesty  Myself,  185 
His  Second  Campaign,  214 
His  Vanished  Star,  208 
Historic  Americans,   331 
Historical  Novel,  The,  340 
Historical    Studies    of    Church- 
Building  in  the  Middle  Ages, 

History  of  American  Literature 

during  the  Colonial  Times,  339 
History    of    Christian    Doctrine, 

382 

History  of  Diplomacy,  etc.,   114 
History    of    Historical    Writing 

in  America,  The,  in 
History  of  Maria  Kittle,  The,  1 1 6 
History  of  New  England,  The,  1 1 
History  of  Philip,   108 
History  of  Plymouth  Plantation, 

10 
History  of  Sir  Charles  Grandison, 

The,  357 
History    of  Spanish   Literature, 

History  of  the  American  People, 
A.,  113 

History  of  the  American  Revolu 
tion,  90 

History  of  the  Colony  of  Massa 
chusetts  Bay,  The,  78-81 

History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico, 
The,  etc.,  105,  108 

History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru, 
The,  etc.,  105 

History  of  the  Formation  of  the 
Constitution  of  America^  102 

History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  ihe,  etc.,  105, 
107,  108 

History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip 
the  Second,  The,  etc.,  105,  108 

History  of  the  United  Nether  lands, 
The,  107 

Hitchcock,   Edward,  424-5 

Hitherto,  182 

Hoboken,  158 

Hobomok,  133 


472 


Index 


Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno,  144, 
159,  256,  440 

Hoffmann,  Ernst,  156 

Holland,   Henry,   Sir,   277 

Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert,  173, 
335-6,  447 

Holley,  Marietta,  349 

Holly  and  Pizen,  232 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  141, 
150,  178-80,  241,  247,  263, 
266,  276,  .,294-6,  297,  301, 
3°3,  328,  332-3-  346,  347, 
348,  358,  427,  439,  445 

Hoist,  von,  Hermann  E.,  113, 
114 

Home  as  Found,  128 

Home  Ballads,  300 

Home  Folks,  352 

Home  Journal,  The,  438 

Home,  Sweet  Home,  255 

Homer,  34,  48,  308 

Homer  (Bryant's),  257,  260,  280 

Homeward  Boitnd,    126,    128 

Honest  John  Vane,  175 

Honorable  Peter  Sterling,  The, 
etc.,  232 

Hood,  Thomas,  263,  350,  354 

Hooker,  Richard,  70 

Hooker,  Thomas,  13 

Hooper,  Mrs.   Ellen,  442 

Hoosier  Schoolmaster,  The,  196 

Hope,  Anthony,  233 

Hope,  James  Barren,  440 

Hope  Leslie,  etc.,  133 

Hopeless  Case,  A,  204 

Hopkins,   Mark,   380,   394-5 

Hopkins,   Samuel,   383-4 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  46,   50-54, 

435 
Hopkinson,    Joseph,    245,    251, 

436 

Horace,  245,  280 
Horace  Chase,  191 
Horse-Shoe  Robinson,   etc.,    147 
House  at  High  Bridge,  The,  204 
House  of  Egremont,  The,  236 
House  of  Martha,  The,  446 
House  of  Mirth,  The,  235 
House  of  Night,  The,  248 
House  of  the  Seven  Gables,  The, 

137,  141-2,  169,  243 
Household  Book  of  Poetry,  332 
Household  Cyclopedia,  The,  432 
Hovey,   Richard,  319 


How  I  Found  Livingstone,  335 
Howard,  Blanche  Willis,   203-4 
Howard  Pinckney,  158 
Howe,  Julia  Ward,  215,  297 
Howells,  William  Dean,  175,  182 
197,   198-201,   212,   221,   230, 

231.     237,    342-3,    443,    445, 

446,  447 

Hubbard,  William,  28 
Hubert  and  Ellen,  252 
Huckleberries  Gathered  from  New 

England  Hills,  223 
Hudibras,  346 

Hudson,  Henry  Norman,  338 
Hugh  Wynne,  Free  Quaker,  186, 

447 

Hugo,  Victor,  305 
Human  Immortality,  398 
Human  Intellect,  The,  380,  396 
Humble  Romance,  A,  224 
Hume,   David,    70 
Humorous  and  Satirical  Poems, 

35° 

Humphreys,  David,  248,  251-2 
Hundredth  Man,  The,  209,  447 
Hunter  Naturalist,   The,   166 
Hurlbert,  William,  187 
Hurricane,  The,  249 
Huskers,  The,  302 
Husks,   173 

Hutchinson,  Ellen  M,,  317,  452 
Hutchinson,  Thomas,  28,  77-81, 

89,  92 

Hutton,  Joseph,  252 
Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  423 
Hyatt,  Alpheus,  420-1,  422 
Hymns  to  the  Gods,  439 
Hyperion,  161,  276,  278,  279 


Ichabod,  370 

Idea    of    God     as     Affected    by 

Modern  Knowledge,  The,  398 
Idle  Man,  The,   163,  437-8 
Idolatry,  197 
Idomen,  etc.,   163 
//,   Yes,  and  Perhaps,  167 
Ike  and  his  Friend,  354 
Ilka  on  the  Hilltop,  203 
Illinois  Monthly  Magazine,  The, 

439. 

Illum^nat^on,    225 
In  a  Cellar,  175 


Index 


473 


In  Connection  with  the  De 
Willoughby  Claim,  202 

In  Cure  of  Her  Soul,  218 

In   Exile,    220 

In  His  Name,  168 

In  Nesting  Time,  341 

In  Ole  Virginia,  222 

In  the  Arena,  233 

In  the  Cage,  194 

In  the  Carquinez  Woods,  189 

In  the  Clouds,  208 

In  the  Distance,  212 

In  the  Fog,  233 

In  the  Palace  of  the  King,  217 

In  the  Stranger  People's  Country, 
208 

In  the  Tennessee  Mountains,  207 

In  the  Valley,  225 

In  the  Wilderness,  348 

In  War  Time,  186,  446 

Increasing  Purpose,  The,  229 

Independent,    The    (New  York), 

274,  349 

Independent  Reflector,  The,  434-5 

Indian  Herald,  The  (Allahabad) , 
215 

Indian  Summer,  200 

Infidel,  The,  158 

Influence  of  the  Gospel  in  Liberal 
ising  the  Mind,  The,  394 

Inman,  John,  448 

Innocents  Abroad,    The,   357 

Inside,  a  Chronicle  of  Secession, 

185 

International  Episode,   An,    193 
International  Magazine,  The, 

444 

International  Review,  The,  451 
Introductory  Essay  on  the  Moral 

and  Devotional  Poetry  of  Spain , 

278 

Invisible  Empire,   The,  211 
lole,  233 
Irving,   Washington,   iv.,   93-6, 

98,      107,     108,     122-3,     239, 

241,  255,  256,  279,  322,  323-5, 

326>  334,  346,  348,  357,  436~7> 

437,  439,  440,  441 
Irving,  William,  123,  436 
Is  Life  Worth  Living  ?  342 
Islets  of  the  Gulf,  or  Rose  Budd, 

The,    441 

Israel  Potter,  165,  444 
Italian  Journeys,  199,  342 


Jack  Curzon,   226 

Jack  Tier,  or  The  Florida  Reefs, 

127,   441 

ackson,  Andrew,  103 
ackson,   Daniel,   Jr.,    122 

Jackson,  Helen  Hunt,  144,  343 
ackson,  Helena  Fiske,  211-12, 

343 

James,  G.  P.  R.,  282 
James,  Henry,  ST.,  342,  398 
James,  Henry,  Jr.,   140,    192-6, 

212,  215,  216,  221,  237,  342, 

398,  445,  447 

James,  William,  342,  393,  398 
Jameson,  J.  F.,  in 
Jane  Field,  224 
Jane  Talbot,   118,   120 
Janice  Meredith,  232 
Janvier,   Thomas  Allibone,    223 
Jay,  John,  62,  443 
Jefferson,   Thomas,   43,   49,    61, 

66-8,    83,    89,    92,    104,    112, 

114,  251,  257,  365,  371 
Jenks,  Jeremiah  Whipple,  408 
Jerome,  A  Poor  Man,  225 
Jesuits  in  North  America,   The, 

no 

Jethro  Bacon  of  Sandwich,  218 
Jewett,    Sarah   Orne,    205,    238, 

239,  446 

Joaquin.     See  Miller,  C.  H. 
'Joaquin,  314 

John  Bowdoin's  Testimony,  220 
John  Brent,  176—7 
John    Godfrey's   Fortunes,    etc., 

183 

John  Gray,  229 
John  March,  Southerner,  210 
John  Ward,  Preacher,  227 
Johnson,  Andrew,  102,  351 
Johnson,    Samuel,    241,   414 
Johnston,  Alexander,  379 
Johnston,  Mary,  236,  444,  446 
Johnston,      Richard      Malcolm, 

184-5 

Jones,  John  Paul,  165,  205 
Jones,  William,  Sir,  413 
Jonson,  Ben,  7,  51 
Jordan,    David   Starr,   423-4 
fo's  Boys,  etc.,  184 
Joseph  and  His  Friends,  183 
Josh  Billings'  Spice  Box,  354 


474 


Index 


Josiah  Allen's  Wife,  349 

Josselyn,  John,  35 

Jottings  Down  in  London,  442 

Journal,  The  (Louisville),  454 

Journal,   The   (New  York),   230 

Journal  of  Commerce,  The  (New 
York),  316 

Journal  of  Speculative  Philoso 
phy,  The,  397 

Judd,  Sylvester,   163—4,   266 

Judith,    173 

Judith,  Esther,  and  Other  Poems, 
265 

Judson,  Adoniram,  165,  381 

Judson,    Emily   Chubbuck,    165 

Juggler,  The,  208 

Julia  and  the  Illuminated  Baron, 
121 

Julian,  or  Scenes  in  Judea,  160 

Jungle,  The,  235,  240 

Jupiter  Lights,  191,  444 

Justice  and  Expediency,  299 

Justin  Martyr,  418 

K 

Kalevala,  281 
Kaloolah,  etc.,  166 
Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  335 
Kant,  Immanuel,  395,  399 
Kate  Beaumont,  175 
Katherine  Lauderdale,  216 
Katherine  Walton,  etc.,    148 
Kavanagh,   161,   278 
Kearsley,  Edward,  446 
Keats,  John,  243,  253,  285 
Keep  Cool,   124 
Kennan,  George,  335 
Kennedy,  John  Pendleton,  146— 

7,  J51.  I57»  440 
Kent,  James,  400,  401—2 
Kentons,   The,   200 
Kentuckians,   The,   234,   444 
Kentucky  Cardinal,  A,  229 
Key,  Francis  Scott,  245,  254 
K  haled,  etc.,  216 
Kidd,   Benjamin,  445 
Kimball,  Richard  B.,   166 
King,   Rufus,   361 
King  and  a  Few  Dukes,  A,  233 
King  Noanett,  218 
King  of  the  Hurons,  The,  165 
King's  End,   224 
Kinney,  Mrs.  J.  C.,  316 


Kinsmen,  The,  148 
Kipling,  Rudyard,  221 
Kirchoff,  Gustav  Robert,  430 
Kirk,  Ellen  Olney,  205-6 
Kirk,  John  Foster,  205 
Kirke,  Edmund.      See  Gilmore, 

James  R. 

Kirkland,  Caroline  M.,  162,  443 
Kirkland,  Joseph,  212 
Knapp,   Isaac,  300 
Knave  of  Hearts,  The,  221 
Knickerbocker      or       New-  York 

Monthly  Magazine,   The,   440 
Knickerbocker,    Diedrich.      See 

Irving,  Washington. 
Knickerbocker    Magazine,     The, 

no,   134,   160,   166,  440,  441, 

442 
Knickerbocker's  History  of  New 

York,  94,  96,  122,  323 
Knight,  Henry  C.,  252,   253 
Knight  of  the  Cumberland,  A,  234 
Knights  of  the  Horseshoe,    The, 

145 

Knitters  in  the  Sun,  226 
Knox,  John,  380 
Koningsmarke,  the  Long  Finne, 

L 

La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the 

Great  West,  no 
Ladd,  George  T.,  393 
Ladd,  Joseph  B.,  250-1 
Ladies'  Companion,  The,  172 
Lad's  Love,  A,  212 
Lady  Byron  Vindicated,  343 
Lady  of  Fort  St.  John,  The,  227 
Lady  of  Quality,  A,  202 
Lady  of  Rome,  A,  217 
Lady  of  the  Aroostook,  The,  199, 

445 

Lady  or  the  Tiger?  The,  etc.,  209 
Lamb,  Charles,  73,  86,  255 
Lamont,  Hammond,  451 
Lamplighter,  The,  172 
Land  and  the  Book,  The,  381 
Land  of  Love,  The,  222 
Land  of  Promise,  The,  etc.,  381 
Landor,  Walter  Savage,  327 
Lang,  Andrew,  215,  261 
Lange,  J.  P.,  382 
Lanier,  Sidney,  243,  272-4,  274, 

297,  344,  446 


Index 


475 


Lanman,  Charles,  215,  443 
Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis 

de,  427 

Larcom,  Lucy,  443 
Lars,  etc.,  306 
Las  Casas,  B.  de,  94 
Last  Assembly  Ball,  The,  220 
Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  The,  440 
Last  Night  of  Pompeii,  The,  439 
Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The,  126, 

129 

Last  of  the  Thorndikes,  The,  181 
Late  Mrs.  Null,  The,  209 
Lathrop,   George  Parsons,    143, 

212  , 

Lauvriere,  Emile,  153 
Law  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law, 

The,  394 
Lawrence,  William  Beach,  400, 

T     4°3  T 

Lawson,  James,  157 

Lawton  Girl,  The,  225 

Lay  of  Fort  St.  John,  The,  227 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  255 

Lay  of  the  Scotch  Fiddle,  255 

Layman's  Study  of  the  English 

Bible,  A,  396 
Lays    of  My   Home   and   Other 

Poems,  300 
Lays  of  the  Heart,  265 
Lazarre,  228 
Lazarus,  Emma,  446 
Lea,  Henry  C.,  114,  440 
Leap  for  Life,  A,  256 
Lear,  Edward,  350 
Leather  Stocking  and  Silk,  etc., 

171 

Leather  stocking  Tales,  The,  126 
Leavenworth  Case,  The,  208 
Leaves  of  Grass,  308,  309,  310, 

311 

Lectures  and  Miscellanies,  342 
Led- Horse  Claim,  The,  220,  447 
Lee,  Hannah  F.,  158 
Leech,  John,  192 
Legare",  Hugh  S.,  450 
Legende  des  Siecles,  La,  305 
Legends  and  Lyrics,  269 
Legends    of    New    England    in 

Prose  and  Verse,  299 
Leggett,  William,  145 
Legitime  und  die  Republikaner, 

Der,  144 
Leisure  Hours,  252 


Leland,  Charles  Godfrey,  314-5, 

35  !.  443 

Leonard,  Daniel,  44 
Lesson  in  Love,  A,  205 
Lesson  of  the  Master,  The,  etc., 

194 
Letter    Written    by  a   Foreigner, 

etc.,  52 

Letters  from  a  Farmer,  etc.,  57-9 
Letters  from  an  American  Far 
mer,  etc.,  84 

Letters  from  Palmyra,  1 60 
Letters  from  under  a  Bridge,  333 
Letters  of  the  British  Spy,  365 
Lewis,    Charles    Bertrand,    355, 

356 
Lewis,   Matthew  Gregory,    116, 

156,  272 

Lewis,  Merriwether,  83 
Liberator,  The,  454 
Liberty  Song,  60 
Liberty  Tree,  The,  136 
Library  of  American  Literature, 

A,  3J7>  452. 

Lieber,  Francis,  402—3 

Liebig,  Justus,  Baron  von,  432 

Life  and  Death  of  John  of 
Barneveld,  The,  etc.,  108 

Life  and  Sayings  of  Mrs.  Part- 
ington,  354 

Life  in  Texas,  144 

Life  in  the  New  World,  etc.,  144 

Life  of  Mahomet  and  his  Suc 
cessors,  93,  324 

Life  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Modern 
English  Poets,  340 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  102,  197, 
198,  212,  245,  309,  312,  316, 
3J7.  3l8»  S36,  351,  36o»  373, 

T  .374,  375-7,  37^,  392,  405 

Lincoln  s  Grave,  2  74 

Linn,  John  Blair,  251,  436 

Linnaeus,  36 

Linwoods,  The,  etc.,  133 

Lion's  Cub,  with  Other  Verse, 
The,  316 

Lippincott's  Magazine,  273,  446 

Literati  of  New  York,  The,  152, 

Literary  and  Historical  Mis 
cellanies,  101 

Literary  History  of  America,  339 
Literary  History  of  the  American 
Revolution,  339 


476 


Index 


Literary  Magazine,  The,  1 1 8 

Literary  Magazine  and  American 
Register,  The,  436 

Literary  Portraits,  439 

Literary  Recollections,  300 

Literary  Recreations,  325 

Literary  World,  The,  450 

Literature  of  the  Age  of  Eliza 
beth,  339 

Little  Centennial  Lady,  A, 
206 

Little  Genius,  The,  438 

Littk  Ike  Templin,  185 

Little  Jarvis,  235 

Little  Journey  in  the  World,  A, 
203,  444 

Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,  201 

Little  Men,  etc.,  184 

Little  Norsk,  A,  etc.,  229 

Little  Regiment,  The,  230 

Little  Renault,  228 

Little  Rivers,  340 

Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom 
Come,  The,  234 

Little  Tour  in  France,  A,  342 

Little  Women,  184 

Lively  Adventures  of  Gavin 
Hamilton,  The,  235-6 

Livingston,  Edward,  362 

Livingston,  William,  63,  435 

Lloyd,  Nelson,  236 

Locke,  David  Ross,  351 

Locke,  John,  n,  70 

Locke  Amsden,  etc.,  159 

Lockhart,  J.  G.,  256 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  449 

Logan,  A.  M.,  189,  190 

London, Jack,  235 

Long  Islander,  The,  308 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth, 
97,  135,  161-2,  169,  243,  245, 
246,  266,  267,  275-83,  284, 
287,  289,  293,  297,  301,  306, 
323,  325-6,  334,  337,  344,  37*, 
438,  439,  440,  44i,  443,  445, 

449 

Longfellow,  Samuel,  266,  383 
Longinus,  243 

Longstreet,  Augustus  B.,  146 
Longworth,  David,  437 
Looking  Backward,  etc.,  206 
Los  Gringos,  etc.,  166 
Loshe,  Lillie  Deming,  115 
Lost  Man's  Lane,  208 


Lothrop,    Amy.       See    Warner, 

Anna  B., 
Lotus  Eating,  332 
Louisiana,  201 
Lounsbury,     Thomas     Raynes- 

ford,  131,  339 
Love  in  Idleness,  205 
Love  in  Old  Cloathes,  219 
Love  of  Parson  Lord,  The,  225 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  129,  163, 
175,   192,  198,  230,  267,  276, 
280,    283-90,    296,    297,    306, 
318,  322,  325,  330,  336,  337, 
344,  347,  348,  35°,  353,  369, 
441,  444,  445,  446,  449 
Lowell,  Percival,  283,  445 
Lowell,    Robert   Traill    Spence, 

Luck  of  Roaring  Camp,  The,  188, 

Lucy  Hardinge,  126 

Lucy  Hosmer,  159 

Lundy,  Benjamin,  300 

Luska,    Sidney.      See    Harland, 

Henry 

Lyrical  and  Other  Poems,  269 
Lyrical  Ballads,  242,   243,   252, 

257 
Lytton.      See  Bulwer 

M 

Mabel  Martin,  300 
Mabel  Vaughan,  172 
Mabie,  Hamilton  Wright,  341 
McCabe,  W.  Gordon,  440 
Macaulay,  T.  B.,  101 
McClure's  Magazine,  448 
McCosh,  James,  380,  393,  396-7 
McCutcheon,  George  Barr,  236 
Macdonald,  Sir  John,  83 
McGee,  W.  J.,  408 
Mclntosh,  Maria  J.,  163 
McKelway,  St.  Clair,  453 
McLellan,  Isaac,  438 
McMaster,   John    B.,    113,    114, 

MacPherson,  James,  250,  308 

McTeague,  231 

McVeys,  The,  212 

Madame    Delia's    Expectations, 

187 

Madame  Delphine,  210 
Madelon,  225 


Index 


477 


224 


Madison,  James,  112,  114,  117, 

363,  367,  368,  377 
Madonna  of  the  Future,  The,  193 
M&viad,  250 

Maggie,  a  Girl  of  the  Streets,  230 
Magnolia     Christi     Americana, 

etc.,  25 

Magruder,  Allan  B.,  401 
Mahomet,  93,  324 
Mail,  The  (New  York),  453 
Mail  and  Express,  The,  3  1  5 
Main-Travelled  Roads,  229 
Main  Truck,  The,  256 
Maine  Woods,  The,  330 
Malbone,   an  Oldport   Romance, 

187 

Malory,  Sir  Thomas,  358 
Mammon     of     Unrighteousness, 

The:  203 

Man  in  the  Case,  The,   191 
Man  without  a  Country,  The,  168, 

,337 

Manassas,  235 

Mannerings,  The, 

Manrique,  278 

Manual  of  American  Literature, 

A,  379 

Manufacturer's  Daughter,  A,  226 
Manuscript  Found  in  a  Bottle, 

A,  IS* 

Marble,  Manton,  453 
Marble  Faun,  The,  116,  137,  138, 

J43 
March,    Francis    Andrew,    409, 

416-17 
Mar  da,  206 
Marco  Bozzaris,  254 
Mardi,   and  a    Voyage   Thither, 

164-5 
Margaret,  a  Tale  of  the  Real  and 

Ideal,  163-4 
Margaret   Percival   in   America, 

167 

Margaret  Warrener,  224 
Marietta,  a  Maid  of  Venice,  217 
Marion  Darche,  216 
Marjorie  Daw,  and  Other  Stories, 

181 

Marked  Personal,  208 
Market  Place,  The,  225 
Marmaduke  Wyvil,  157 
Married  in  Haste,  173 
Married,  Not  Mated,  168 
Married  or  Single,  133 


Marryat,  Frederick,  256 

Marse  Chan,  222 

Marsena,  and  Other  Stories,  225 

Marsh,  George  Perkins,  415 

Marsh  Island,  A,  205 

Marshes  of  Glynn,  The,  274 

Marshall,  John,  90-1,  361-2, 
370,  400-1 

Marston,  Philip  Bourke,  446 

Martin  Faber,  etc.,  148 

Martin  Merrivale,  171 

Martineau,  Harriet,  170 

Maruja,  189 

Marvel,  Ik.  See  Mitchell,  Don 
ald  G. 

Mary  had  a  little  lamb,  439 

Marzio's  Crucifix,  216 

Masque  of  Judgment,  The,  319 

Masque  of  the  Gods,  The,  306 

Massachusetts    Magazine,     The, 

435 
Massachusetts  Quarterly  Review, 

The,  450 

Master  of  Silence,  The,  234 
Mate  of  the  Daylight,  The,  etc., 

205 

Mather,  Cotton,  23-6,  28,  339 
Mather,  Increase,  23-4 
Mather,  Richard,  22-3,  24 
Mather,  Samuel,  26 
Mathews,  Cornelius,  160-1 
Matthews,  Brander,  239,  340 
Maud  Muller,  300,  301,  302 
Maupassant,  Guy  de,  219 
Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine,  429, 

440 

May -Day,  293 
May  Martin,  etc.,  159 
Mayer,  Julius  Robert,  432 
Mayo,  William  Starbuck,  166 
Mca  Culpa,  222 
Meadow-Grass,  224 
Meat  out  of  the  Eater,  etc.,  21-2 
Medill,  Joseph,  454 
Mellichampe:     a   Legend   of   the 

Santee,  148 
Melville,    Herman,    164-5,    T^9» 

263,  444 
Memoirs  of  Carwin,  the  Biologist, 

436 

Mercedes,  and  Later  Lyrics,  316 
Mercedes  of  Castile,  130 
Mere  Literature,  etc.,  340,  408 
Meredith,  George,  357,  358 


478 


Index 


Merrimac,  The,  302 
Merry  Chanter,  The,  209,  447 
Merry  Mount,  etc.,  162 
Method    of   the    Divine    Govern 
ment,  Physical  and  Moral,  396 
Mettle  of  the  Pasture,  The,  229 
M'Fingal,  56-7,  248,  346 
Midge,  The,  219 
Midshipman  Paulding,  235 
Midsummer  Madness,  A,  205 
Miles  Wallingford,  126 
Mill,  John  Stuart,  395 
Miller,  Charles  W.  E.,  418 
Miller,  Cincinnatus  Hiner,  313-4 
Miller,  Joaquin.  See  Miller,  C.  H. 
Miller,  Olive  Thorne,  341 
Millionaire  of  Rough  and  Ready, 

A,  189 
Milton,  John,  17,  135,  240,  245, 

271,  282,  284,  290,  312,  316 
Mims,  Edwin,  274 
Mingo,  etc.,  214,  352 
Minister  s  Charge,  The,  200 
Minister's  Wooing,  The,  170 
Minot,  G.  R.,  92 
Minute  Book,  The,  438 
Miriam,  173 

Miriam ,  and  Other  Poems,  300 
Miss  Bagg's  Secretary,  224 
Miss  Gilbert's  Career,  174 
Miss    Ludington's    Sister,    etc., 

206 

Miss  Ravenel's  Conversion,  175 
Missionary  Sheriff,  The,  226 
Missy,  176 

Mr.  Absalom  Bilingslea,  etc. ,185 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bowser,  356 
Mr.  Barnes  of  New  York,  226 
Mr.  Billy  Downs  and  His  Likes, 

i85 
Mr.    Partner's    Marital   Claims, 

etc.,  185 
Mr.  Isaacs,  215 
Mr.  Keegan's  Elopement,  234 
Mr.  Potter  of  Texas,  226 
Mr.  Rutherford's  Children,  169 
Mr.  Tommy  Dove,  etc.,  227 
Mrs.  Cliff's  Yacht,  209 
Mrs.  Knollys,  and  Other  Stories, 

218 

Mrs.  Peixada,  222 
Mrs.  Skagg's  Husbands,  189 
Mitchell,  Donald  G.,   167,  333, 

334 


Mitchell,  Isaac,  121-2 
Mitchell,  Silas  Weir,  185-6,  446, 

447 

Moby  Dick,  etc.,  165,  169 
Modern  Chivalry,  etc.,  117 
Modern  Instance,  A,  199,  447 
Modern  Mephistopheles,  A,  184 
Mogg  Me  gone,  300 
Moll  Pitcher,  299 
Monaldi,  163 
Money-Diggers,  The,  123 
Money  Magic,  230 
Money  penny,  etc.,  161 
Monk,  The,  116 
Monroe,  James,  368 
Monsieur  Beaucaire,  233 
Monster,  and  Other  Stories,  The, 

230  _ 

Montaigne,  M.,  291 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  no 
Montesquieu,  70 
Monthly  Magazine  and  American 

Review,  The,  435 
Monthly  Review,  The,  82 
Monumenta  Germanice  Historica, 

98 

Moods,  184 

Moody,  William  Vaughan,  319 
Moore,  Frank,  379 
Moore,  Thomas,  265,  268,  269 
Moosehead  Journal,  A,  444 
Moralism  and  Christianity,  342 
More,  Paul  Elmer,  341-2,  451, 

452 

Morell,  Benjamin,  151 
Morgan,     Lewis     Henry,     409, 

41 i— 12 

Morgesons,  The,  178,  180 
Morion's  Mourning,  231 
Morning   Post,     The    (Philadel 
phia),  209 

Morris,  George  P.,  255-6,  438 
Morris,  Gouverneur,  362,  436 
Morse,  James  H.,  120,  129, 

178 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  127,  448 
Mortal  Antipathy,  A,  180 
Morte  d' Arthur,  358 
Morton,  Sarah  W.,  250 
Morton,   oder  Die  grosse   Tour, 

144 

Morton's  Hope,  etc.,  162 
Mose  Evans,  185 
Moss-Side,  173 


Index 


479 


Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse,  136, 

140 

Mother  of  Pearl,  177 
Motley,  John  Lothrop,   96,   97, 

99,  107-9,  no,  in,  162,  333, 

445 
Mountain    of   the    Lovers,    The, 

etc.,  269 

Mountain-White  Heroine,  A,  181 
M.  Quad.     See  Lewis,  C.  B. 
Muhlenberg,  Henry  Ernst,  384- 

Muhlenberg,     Henry     Melchior, 

384 
Muhlenberg,  William  Augustus, 

383 

Mulford,  Elisha,  407 
Munsey's  Magazine,  448 
Murfree,  Mary  Noailles,   207-8, 

212,  228,  238 
Murray,  Lindley,  413-4 
Music  and  Poetry,  344 
Music  Grinders,  347 
Music  Lesson  of  Confucius,  The, 

etc.,  315 
My  Double  and  How  He  Undid 

Me,  1 68 

My  Lady  Paramount,  222 
My  Old  Kentucky  Home,  319 
My  Opinions  and  Betsy  Bobbet's, 

349 

My  Southern  Friends,  181 
My  Study  Fire,  341 
My  Study  Windows,  336 
My  Summer  in  a  Garden,  334, 

348 
My    Thirty    Years    Out    of   the 

Senate,  350 

My  Uncle  Florimond,  222 
My  Wife  and  I,  171 
My  Winter  on  the  Nile,  334 
Myers,  E.,  261 
Myers,  Peter  Hamilton,  165 
Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  The,  116 
Mystery  of  Metropolisville,  The, 

196 

Mystery   of    Witch-Face    Moun 
tain,  The,  208 
Myths  and  Myth  Makers,  398 

N 

Nadowessiers  Totenlied,  84 
Nameless  Nobleman,  A,  223 


Nantucket  Idyl,  A,  206 

Napoleon,  386 

Narrative   and   Critical   History 

of  America,  112 
Narrative  of  Arthur  Gordon  Pym, 

The,  151,  154 
Narrative    of    Four    Voyages    to 

the  South  Seas  and  Pacific,  A, 

151 

Naseby,  Petroleum  Vesuvius. 
See  Locke,  D.  R. 

Nast,  Thomas,  405 

Nathan  der  Squatter  Regulator, 
144 

Nation,  The  (Mulford's),  407 

Nation,  The,  122,  199,  207,  342, 
450-1 

National  Anti-Slavery  Standard, 
The,  286,  454 

National  Enquirer,  The,  300 

National  Era,  The  (Washing 
ton),  169,  301,  454 

National  Lyrics,  300 

National  Quarterly  Review,  The, 

45° 
Native    of    Winby,    and    Other 

Tales,  A,  205 
Natural  Selection,  219 
Nature,  328 
Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry, 

The,  317,  344 

Nature  and  the  Supernatural,  387 
Naulahka,  The,  221 
Navarrete,  de,  M.  F.,  93,  94 
Neal,  John,  124-5,253,437 
Meal's  Saturday  Gazette,  349 
Neighbour  Jackwood,  171 
Neighbourly  Poems,  318 
Nelson,  Henry  Loomis,  445 
Nemesis,  173 
Nevil,  S.,  435 
New  American  Magazine,    The, 

435 

New  England  Galaxy,  The,  134 
New    England    Magazine,    The, 

298,  439,  448 

New  England  Nun,  A.,  etc.,  224 
New  England  Tale,  A,  132 
New  Englander,  The,  450 
New  Home,  A;  Who  'II  Follow  ? 

162 

New  Mirror,  The,  438 
New  Priest  of  Conception  Bay, 

The,  175 


480 


Index 


New  Timothy,  The,  185 
New  World,  The,  442-3 
New  World  and  the  New  Book, 

The,  337 
New  York  Literary  Gazette,  The, 

438 

New  York  Magazine,  The,  435 
New  York  Mirror,  The,  144,  438, 

439 
New     York    Quarterly    Review, 

The,  45° 

New  York  Review,  The,  259,  450 
New    York    Review    and    Athe- 

nceum  Magazine,   The,   438 
New    York    Tribune,    The,    270, 

304,  305,  317,  319,  332 
New  York  World,  The,  315 
Newcomb,  Simon,  445 
Newell,  Robert  Henry,  351 
Newman,  Francis,  260 
Newton,  Isaac,  Sir,  427 
Next  Door,  224 
Nibelungen,  308 
Nicholas  Minturn,  174 
Nicholson,  Meredith,  236 
Nick  of  the  Woods,  etc.,  158,  178 
Nights  with   Uncle  Remus,   214, 

N import,  204 

Nina  Gordon,  170 

No  Gentleman,  224 

No  Heroes,  204 

Noble,  James  A.,  180 

Norman  Leslie,  158 

N  orris,  Frank ,  2  g :  o— i 

^orth  American  Quarterly  Mag 
azine,  The,  439 

North  American  Review,  The,  98, 
104,  135,  258,  278,  287,  336, 

395,  424 

North  American  Review  and 
Miscellaneous  Journal,  The, 

449 

North  and  South,  etc.,  144 
Norton,  Charles  Eliot,  230,  276, 

280,  336-7,  338,  378,  445,  449 
Norton's  Rest,  173 
Norwich  Tribune,  The,  317 
Norwood,  etc.,  186-7 
Notes   of   Travel  and  Study  in 
•     Italy,  337 
Nott,  Eliphalet,  380 
Novel,  What  It  Is,  The,  343 
November  Boughs,  310,  343 


Noyes,  George  Rapall,  381 
Nye,  Bill.     See  Nye,  Edgar  W. 
Nye,    Edgar  Wilson,   345,    355, 
356 

O  Captain!  My  Captain!  309 

O  Mother  of  a  Mighty  Race,  260 

Oak  Mot,  185 

Oakes,  Urian,  20—1 

O'Brien,  Fitz-James,  177,  239 

Occidente,    Maria    del.         See 

Brooks,  Maria  Gowen. 
O'Connor,  W.  D.,  309 
Octopus,  The,  231 
Odell,  Jonathan,  46,  346 
Ogden,  Rollo,  452 
Ogeechee  Cross-Firings,  185 
Old  and  New,  447,  450 
Old  Bay  Psalm  Book,  23 
Old   Bullion.       See    Benton, 

Thomas  Hart 
Old  Chester  Tales,  227 
Old  Creole  Days,  210 
Old  Dominion,  The,  236 
Old-Fashioned  Girl,  An,  184 
Old-Fashioned  Roses,  318 
Old  Folks  at  Home,  319 
Old     Gentleman     of    the     Black 

Stock,  The,  etc.,  222 
Old  Hicks  the  Guide,  166 
Old  Homestead,  The,  173 
Old  Ironsides,  295 
Old  Kaskaskia,  228 
Old  Maid's  Paradise,  An,  191 
Old  Mark  Langston,  185 
Old  Oaken  Bucket,  The,  255,  438 
Old  Portraits  and  Modern 

Sketches,  325 
Old  Regime,  The,  no 
Old  Songs  and  New,  275 
Old  Stone  House,  The,  191 
Old   Swimmin'-Hole,    The,   etc., 

3i8 

Old  Times  in  Middle  Georgia,  185 
Old  Town  by  the  Sea,  An,  344 
Oldport  Days,  187 
Oldtown  Folks,  170,  350 
Olio,  251 

Olney,  Richard,  445 
Omoo,  etc.,  164 
On  a  Bust  of  Dante,  267 
On  Critics  and  Criticism,  327 
On  New  Found  River,  222 


Index 


481 


On  the  Border,  181 

On  the  Frontier,  189 

On  the  Wing  of  Occasions,  214 

Onderdonk,  Henry  Ustick,  383 

Onderdonk,  J.  L.,  264,  268,  321 

One  of  My  Sons,  208 

One  Summer,  204 

Open  Door,  The,  204 

Open-Eyed  Conspiracy,  An,  200 

Opinions  of  a  Philosopher,  The, 

221 

Oregon  Trail,  The,  no,  440 
O'Reilly,  John  Boyle,  319 
Original  Letters  of  Ferdinand 

and  Elizabeth,  The,  121 
Original  Poems,  250 
Ormond,  etc.,  118,  119-20 
Orpheus  C.  Kerr  Papers,  351 
Orphic  Sayings,  442 
Orthodoxy,  its  Truths  and  Errors, 

33* 

Osawatomie  Brown,  3 1 7 
Osborn,  Henry  P.,  423 
Osgood,  Francis  S.,  266 
Ossian,  250,  308 
Ossoli,    Countess.      See    Fuller, 

Sarah  M. 
Othello,  163 
Other  Fellow,  The,  228 
Other  House,  The,  194,  195 
Otis,  James,   44,   48-9,   60,   90, 

115.  36° 

Our  Hundred  Day sin  Europe,  333 
Our  Lady  Vanity,  206 
Our  Old  Home,  137,  139,  342 
Out  of  His  Head,  181 
Out  of  the  Hurly  Burly,  355 
Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat,  The,  188 
Outdoor  Papers,  337 
Outlook,  The,  341 
Outrageous  Fortune,  204 
Outre-Mer,  278,  326,  334 
Over  the  Tea-Cups,  333 
Overland,  175 
Overland  Monthly,  The,  188,  190, 

447 

Ovid,  4,  263 

Owen,  Richard,  Sir,  423 
Owen,  Robert,  385 


P.  A.  and  P.  I.  or  Samanthy  at 
the  Centennial,  349 

31 


Packard,  Alpheus  Spring,  421-2 

Pactolus  Prime,  211 

Pagans,  The,  212 

Page,  C.  H.,  301,  321 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  222,  228, 

239,  445 

Page,  Walter  H.,  446 
Pages  from  an  Odd  Volume  of 

Life,  333 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  249,  250 
Paine,  Thomas,  58,  60,  63-6,  435 
Pains  of  Memory,  250 
Palace  of  Art,  243 
Palfrey,  F.  W.,  104 
Palfrey,  John  Gorham,  104,  449 
Palmer,  Ray,  383 
Pampinea,  and  Other  Poems,  316 
Pan  in  Wall  Street,  318 
Papers  on  Literature   and    Art, 

331 

Park,  Edwards  Amasa,  381,  384 

Parker,  Theodore,  331,  387-8, 
442,  45° 

Parkman,  Francis,  89,  96,  99, 
107,  109-11,  113,  440 

Parley,    Peter.      See  Goodrich, 

—STGT 

Parsons,  Theophilus,  438 

Parsons,  Thomas  W.,  266-7 

Partial  Portraits,  342 

Partington,  Mrs.  See  Shillaber, 
B.P. 

Partingtonian  Patchwork,  354 

Partisan,  The,  148 

Partisan  Leader,  The,  146 

Parton,  James,  333-4 

Passage  to  India,  310 

Passages  from  American  Note- 
Books,  137 

Passages  from  English  Note- 
Books,  137 

Passages  from  French  and  Italian 
Note-Books,  137 

Passe  Rose,  220 

Passionate  Pilgrim,  -A,  193 

Patent  Philtre,  A,  221 

Pathfinder,  The,  126,  129 

Patience  Sparhawk  and  Her 
Times,  234 

Patient  Strong's  Outings,  182 

Patriot,  The,  307 

Paul  Fane,  etc.,  173 

Paul  Felton,  132,  438 

Paul  Patoff,  216,  445 


482 


Index 


Paulding,  James  Kirke,  123-4, 
255,  256,  369,  437,  439,  440, 
44i,  451 

Payne,  John  Howard,  255 
Payne,  Will,  236 
Peabody,  Andrew,  439,  449 
Peabody,  Oliver,  449 
Peabody,  William,  439,  449 
Peacock,  Thomas  Love,  120 
Pearce  Amer son's  Will,  185 
Pearl  of  Orr's  Island,  The,  170 
Peck,  Harry  Thurston,  448 
Peculiar,  etc.,  163 
Peirce,  Benjamin,  427 
Pembroke,  225 
Pencillings  by  the  Way,  333 
Penelope's  Progress,  234,  446 
Penelope's  Suitors,  204 
Pennsylvania  Freeman,  The, 

286,  300 
Pennsylvania  Magazine,  The, 

435 

Percival,  James  Gates,  264 
Pere  Antoine's  Date  Palm,  18 1 
Perfect  Adonis,  A,  176 
Perfect  Life,  The,  331 
Perkins,  Eli,  345 
Perrin,  Bernadotte,  417 
Perry,  Arthur  Latham,  407 
Perry,  Bliss,  340,  446 
Persius,  418 
Personal    Recollections    of  Joan 

of  Arc,  The,  358,  444 
Peter  Piper,  255 
Peter  Rugg,   the   Missing   Man, 

J34 

Peter  the  Great,  447 
Peters,  Richard,  43 
Peters,  Samuel,  81-2 
Peterson's   Magazine,    172,    349, 

443 

Phases  of  an  Inferior  Planet,  236 
Phelps,  Austin,  190 
Philip  and  His  Wife,  227,  446 
Philip  Nolan's  Friends,  1 68 
Philistines,  The,  212 
Phillips,  David  Graham,  236 
Phillips,  Wendell,  373,  454 
Phillips,  Willard,  449 
Phih,  266 
Philosophy  of  Composition,  The, 

270,  327 
Philoteah,  133 
Phoebe,  176 


Phyllis  of  the  Sierras,  A,  189 
Piazza  Tales,  The,  165 
Picayune,    The    (New   Orleans), 

2IO 

Pickard,  S.  T.,  298 

Pickering,  Charles,  411 

Picture  of  St.  John,  The,  306 

Pierce,  Franklin,  137 

Pierpont,  John,  264-5 

Pierre,  or  The  Ambiguities,  165 

Pietro  Ghisleri,  216 

Pike,  Albert,  268,  438 

Pike  County  Ballads,  319 

Pilot,  The,  126,  129 

Pindar,  294,  418 

Pink  and  White  Tyranny,  171 

Pinkney,  Edward  C.,  268 

Pinkney,  William,  363 

Pioneer,  The,  285 

Pioneers,  The,  124,  126,  129 

Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New 
World,  The,  no 

Pipes  o'Pan  at  Zekesbury,  318 

Pirate  Gold,  218 

Pit,  The,  231 

Pitt,  William.  See  Chatham, 
Earl  of 

Plain  Talks  on  Familiar  Sub 
jects,  335-6  ^ 

Playing  the  Mischief,  175 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  120,  125,  149, 
149-157,  158,  177,  239,  243, 
263,  266,  268,  269,  270-2,  322, 
326-7,  340,  439,  440,  441,  443 

Poems  of  Nature,   300 

Poems  of  the  Orient,  306 

Poems  Written  during  the  Pro 
gress  of  the  Abolition  Move 
ment  in  America,  300 

Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table,  The, 

333 

Poetic  Principle,  The,  327 
Poets  of  America,  344 
Poganuc  People,  171 
Political  Barometer,  The,  122 
Pomona's  Travels,  209 
Poor  Margaret  Dwy,  252 
Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  278 
Pope,  Alexander,  241,  243,  248, 

250,  260,  287,  296,  346 
Popular  Science   Monthly,    The, 

214,  392,  433 
Porcupiniad,  The,  251 
Port  Folio,  The,  436 


Index 


483 


Porter,  Noah,  380,  393,  396 

Porter,  T.  O.,  441 

Portico,  The,  437 

Portion  of  Labour,  The,  225,  444 

Portland  Gazette,  The,  277 

Portland  Magazine,  The,  172 

Portrait  of  a  Lady,    The,     193, 

445 

Post  Captain,  The,  121. 
Postl,  Carl,  143-5 
Potiphar  Papers,  The,  332,  444 
Powell,  John  Wesley,  409,  412 
Power  of  Maternal  Piety,    The, 

266 

Power  of  Solitude,  The,  250 
Powers  of  Genius,  The,  436 
Pragmatism,  342,  398 
Prairie,  The,  129 
Prairie  Folks,  229 
Precaution,  126 
Prelude,  The,  258 
Prentice,  George  D.,  454 
Preparation     and     Delivery     of 

Sermons,  389 
Prescott,  William  Hickling,  89, 

96,  99,   101,  104-7,   IQ8,   109, 

no,  in,  276,  449 
Preston,  Margaret,  274-5 
Pretty  Sister  of  Jose,  The,  201 
Pretty  Story,  A,  50 
Primes    and    Their  Neighbours, 

The,  185 

Prince,  Thomas,  28,  89 
Prince  and  the  Pauper,  The,  358 
Prince  Deukalion,  306 
Prince  of  India,  The,  202 
Princess,  The,  183 
Princess  Aline,  The,  233 
Princess  Casamassima,  The,  193, 

195 

Princeton  Review,  The,  382 
Principia,  427 

Prisoner  of  the  Border,  The,  165 
Prisoner  of  Zenda,  The,  233 
Prisoners  of  Hope,  236 
Problem,  The,  442 
Probus,  1 60 
Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table, 

333 
Professor's  Story,  The.     See  Elsie 

Venner. 

Prometheus,  264 
Prometheus  Unbound,  269 
Prophet,  The,  306 


Prophet    of    the    Great    Smoky 

Mountains,  The,  208 
Prose  Writers  of  Germany,  381 
Protegee  of  Jack   Hamlin's,  A. 

189 

Proud  Miss  MacBride,  The,  263 
Proud,  Robert,  92,  118 
Prudence  Palfrey,  181,  445 
Prue  and  I,  173,  444 
Psalm  of  the  West,  273 
Public  Occurrences,  31 
Puck,  218 

Pudd'nhead  Wilson,  447 
Pulitzer,  Joseph,  453 
Punch,  192,  355 
Puritan  Politics  in  England  and 

New  England,  337 
Putnam,  F.  W.,  421 
Putnam,  George  H.,  444 
Putnam,  George  P.,  443,  444 
Putnam's  Monthly,  444-5,  448, 

45i 
Putnam's     Monthly     Magazine, 

161,  173,  174,  378,  441,  444 


Quad,  M.    See  Lewis,  C.  B. 

Quad's  Odds,  356 

Quality  of  Mercy,  The,  200 

Queechy,  169 

Queen  Money,  205 

Queen  of  Sheba,  The,  181-2 

Queen  of  the  Swamp,  The,  etc., 

228 
Queen  Titania,  203 

Sueen's  Twin,  The,  etc.,  205 
ueries  of  Highest  Consideration, 
15 

Quincy,  Edmund,  444 
Quincy,  Josiah,  Jr.,  360,  363 
Quodlibet,  etc.,  147 


Rachel  Dyer,  124 
Raciad,  The,  268 
Radcliffe,  Anne,  116,  156,  272 
Ragged  Lady,  200 
Railroad  Guide,  The,  356 
Raisifi's  Daughter,  209 
Ralstons,  The,  217 
Ramona,  144,  211 
Ramsay,  David,  90,  92 


484 


Index 


Randolph,  John,  369 

Rangers,    The;      or    The    Tory's 

Daughter,  159 

Ranke,  von,  Leopold,  98,  103 
Ranson's  Folly,  233 
Raven,  The,  152,  270 
Ravien,  Christian,  33 
Raymond,  Henry  J.,  452 
Read,  Thomas  B.,  297,  439 
Reader,  The,  448 
Real  Thing,  The,  etc.,  194 
Real  World,  The,  234 
Rebels,  The,  133 
Recollections    of   the    Last    Ten 

Years,  133 

Red  Badge  of  Courage,  The,  230 
Red  Jacket,  254,  364 
Red  Republic,  The,  233 
Red  Rock,  etc.,  222 
Red  Rover,  The,  126 
Redburn,  His  First  Voyage,  165 
Redskins,    The;    or  Indian  and 

Injin,  128 
Redwood,  132 
Reed,  Edward  B.,  122 
Reflections  of  a  Married   Man, 

The,  221 

Reid,  Mayne,  144 
Reign  of  Law,  The,  229 
Reigning  Belle,  The,  173 
Rejected  Wife,  The,  173 
Religion  of  Israel,  The,  383 
Religious    Aspect    of  Evolution, 

The,  397 
Religious    Aspect  of  Philosophy, 

The,  399 

Remarkable  Providences,  24 
Renan,  Joseph  Ernest,  385 
Representative  Men,  328 
Republic  of  God,  The,  407 
Republican,     The    (Springfield) , 

453 

Republican  Crisis,  The,  122 

Resignation,  443 

Reverberator,  The,  194 

Reveries  of  a  Bachelor,  167,  334 

Revolt  of  a  Daughter,  The,  206 

Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  La,  447 

Reynard  the  Fox,  214 

Rhodes,  James  Ford,  89,  114 

Rhymes  of  Childhood,  318,  352 

Richard  Carvel,  233 

Richard    Edney    and    the    Gov 
ernor's  Family,  164 


Richardson,    Charles    F.,     193, 

2ii,  237,  321,  339 
Richardson,  Samuel,  117,  357 
Richter,    Jean    Paul    Friedrich, 


161,  279 

Ridgway,  Robert,  420 

Rifle,  The,  145 

Riggs,  Mrs.  George  C.  See  Wig- 
gin,  Kate  Douglas. 

Right  Princess,  The,  224 

Rights  of  the  British  Colonies, 
Asserted  and  Proved,  The,  48 

Riley,    James   Whitcomb,    318, 

352>  356 
Rime   of  the   Ancient   Mariner, 

The,  264 

Ripley,  George,  331,  442,  452 
R^se  and  Fall  of  the  Mustache, 


The,  etc.,  357 
Lai 


tam,  The,  200, 


Rise  of  Silas 

447 
Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  The, 

etc.,  107,  109 
Rise,  Progress,  and  Termination 

of  the  American  Revolution,  go 
Ritchie,  Anne  Thackeray,   147, 

445 

River  Fight,  The,  267 
River's  Children,  The,  232 
Rob  of  the  Bowl,  etc.,  147 
Robbers,  The,  120 
Robert  Elsmere,  227 
Robert  of  Lincoln,  260 
Robinson,  Edward,  381 
Robinson,  Ezekiel  G.,  389 
Robinson,  Henry  Crabb,  73 
Robinson,  Rowland  E.,  228 
Robinson  Crusoe's  Money,  405 
Rocked  in  the  Cradle  of  the  Deep, 

266^ 
Roderick  Hudson,  193,  194,  195, 

445 

Rodman  the  Keeper,  etc.,  191 
Rohlfs,     Mrs.    Charles.       See 

Greene,  Anna  Katharine 
Roland  Blake,  186 
Roman  Lawyer  in  Jerusalem,  A, 

266 

Roman  Singer,  A,  216,  445 
Roman  Traitor,  The,  157 
Romance  of  Dollar d,  The,  227 
Romance  of  the  Forest,  The,  116 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  220 
Romola,  170 


Index 


485 


318 


Roosevelt,  Theodore,  378-9,  445 

Root-Bound,  223 

Rose,  Robert  H.,  436 

Rose  in  Bloom,  184 

Rose  of  Dutcher's  Coolly,  229 

Rossetti,  W.  M.,  313 

Roth,  von,  Rudolph,  417 

Rousseau,    Jean    Jaques,     135, 

244,  253,  310-11,  386 
Rowson,  Susanna  Haswell,  116- 

7,  25° 
Roxy,  196 

Royal  American  Magazine,  435 
Royal  Literary  Fund,  The,  84 
Royal    Society     (the    founding 

of),  36 

Royce,  Josiah,  393    399 
Rubaiyat  of  Doc  Sifers,  The, 
Rudder  Grange,  209,  447 
Rulers  of  the  South,  The,  343 
Ruling  Passion,  The,  250 
Rush,  Benjamin,  435 
Ruskin,  John,  242,  302,  337 
Russell,  Lord  John,  277 
Ruth,  252 
Rutherford,  204 
Rutledge,  176 
Rutledge,  Edward,  61 


S.,  J.,  of  Dale.     See  Stimson,  F. 

Sabbath  Scene,  A,  300 
Sacred  Fount,  The,  195 
Sa-go-ye-wat-ha.       See     Red 

Jacket 

St.  Gregory's  Quest,  etc.,  301 
St.  John,  J.  Hector,  8J-6 
St.    Leger,    or    The    Threads    of 

Life,  1 66 
St.  Nicholas,  209 
Salisbury,  Edward  E.,  417 
Sally  Dows,^  189 
Salmagundi,  123,  255,  436-7 
Sam  Lawson's  Fireside  Stories, 

171 

Sam  LoveVs  Camps,  228 
Sanctuary,  235 
Sanderson,  John,  436 
Sands,  Robert  C.,  256,  438,  448 
Sandys,  George,  4-5 
Sane  Lunatic,  A,  2 "4 
Sant'  Ilario,  216 


Sappho  of  Green  Springs,  A,  189 
Sara  Crewe,  etc.,  201 
Saracinesca,  216 
Sargent,  Epes,  163,  443 
Sargent,  John  Osborne,  443 
Sargent,  Lucius  M.,  252 
Sartain,  John,  443 
Sartain's    Magazine,    270,    327, 

443 

Satanstoe,  etc.,  128 

Saturday  Evening  Post,  The,  304 

Saturday     Vistor,     The     (Balti 
more),  151 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey,  263,  350-1, 

354,  44i 

Saxon  Studies,  342 
Scarlet  Letter,  The,  iv,  136,  138, 

139,  140-1,  142 
Schaff,  Philip,  382 
Scheffel,J.  V.,  315 
Schelling,  Felix  Emmanuel,  340 
Schiller,  Johann  C.  F.  von,  84, 

120 
Schoolcraft,  Henry  Rowe,  281, 

409,  410 

Schouler,  James,  113 
Schurman,    Jacob    Gould,   393, 

399 

Schurz,  Carl,  378,  445 
Schuyler,  Eugene,  447 
Schuyler,  Montgomery,  453 
Science,  392,  423 
Science  of  English   Verse,    The, 

344 

Scientific  American,  The,  392 
Scollard,  Clinton,  319 
Scott,  John  Morin,  435 
Scott,  Walter,  Sir,  127,  135,  243, 

249,  255,  268,  284,  298,  307, 

324,  325 
Scottish  Philosophy,    The,   etc., 

397 

Scout,  The,  149 

Scraps  from  the  Lucky-Bag,  429 
Scribner's   Magazine,    141,    196, 

219,  225,  448 
Scribner's    Monthly    (later    The 

Century  Magazine,  q.v.),  201, 

206,  209,  335,  447 
Scriptural  Idea  of  Man,  The,  395 
Scuader,  Horace  E.,  446 
Scudder,  Vida  Button,  340 
Sea   Lions,    The;    or    The   Lost 

Sealers,  127 


486 


Index 


Sea  Wolf,  The,  235 

Seabury,  Samuel,  62 

Seacliff,  175 

Sealsfield,  Charles,  143-5 

Sea  well,  Molly  Elliot,  235-6 

Sebastian  Strome,  197 

Sedgwick,  Catherine  Maria,  132- 

Select  British  Eloquence,  389 
Select    Reviews    and    Spirit    of 

Foreign  Magazines,  The,  437 
Selections   from    Papers    of    an 

Idler,  439 
Self-Culture,  386 
Septimus  Felton,  etc.,  137—8,  445 
Sequel  to  Drum  Taps,  309 
Sergeant,  John,  362 
Seth's  Brother's  Wife,  225 
Seven  Dreamers,  224 
Seven  on  the  Highway,  204 
Seventy-Six,  124 
Sewall,  Jonathan  M.,  251 
Sewanee  Review,  The,  451 
Seward,  William  Henry,  374 
Sforza,  a  Story  of  Milan,  212 
Shakespeare,  William,  3,  4,  135, 

163,  220,  264,  298,  308,  316, 

336,  338-9,  34i,  344,  436,  437, 

444 

Sharp,  William,  204 
Shaw,  Henry  Wheeler,  353-4 
Shedd,  William  G.  T.,  382 
Shelburne  Essays,  342 
Shelf  of  Old  Books,  A,  338 
Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  120,  143, 

240,  241,  243,  252,  253,  259, 

269,  305,  306 
Shepard,  Edward  M.,  445 
Shepard,  Thomas,  13 
Sheppard  Lee,  158 
Sheridan,  Richard  B.  B.,  354 
Sheridan's  Ride,  297 
Sherman,  John,  35 
Sherwood,  Margaret,  236 
Sherwood,  Sidney,  400,  406 
Shillaber,  Benjamin  Penhallow, 

353.  354 
Short  Sixes,  219 
Shorter  Catechism,  2 1 
Shot  in  the  Eye,  166 
Shuttle,  The,  202 
Siberia  and  the  Exile  System,  335 
Sibyl  Chase,  173 
Sibylline  Leaves,  252 


Sidney,  227,  446 
Sidney,  Algernon,  n,  70 
Sidney,  Philip,  Sir,  278 
Siege  of  London,  The,  193 
Sigourney,  Lydia  Huntley,  265, 

^266,  439,  443,  449 
Silence,  and  Other  Stories,  225 
Silent  Partner,  The,  191 
Sill,  Edward  Rowland,  314 
Silliman,     Benjamin,     Sr.,    426, 

427-8 

Silliman,  Benjamin,  Jr.,  428 
Simms,    William   Gilmore,    144, 
146,  147-9,  157,  269-70,  439, 

_440,  441 
Simple  Cobbler  of  Agawam,  The, 

i3-J4 

Sinclair,  Upton,  235 
Singular  Life,  A,  191 
Sir  Edmund  Orme,  0.94 
Sir  Mortimer,  236,  444 
Sir  Rohan's  Ghost,  175 
Six  Trees,  225 

Skeleton  in  Armour,  The,  282 
Sketch  Book,  The,  iv,   122,   123, 

324    326   334,  437 
Sketches  in  Verse,  436 
Sketches    of  History,    Life,    and 

Manners  in  the  West,  1 59 
Sketches  of  the  Literature  of  the 

United  States,  134 
Sloanaker,  William,  443 
Sloane,  William  A.,  397 
Slosson,  Annie  Trumbull,  224 
Smith,  Eli,  381 
Smith,  Elihu  H.,  118 
Smith,  Francis  Hopkinson,  228, 

446 

Smith,  Goldwin,  114 
Smith,  Henry  Boynton,  382 
Smith,  John,  Captain,  2-3 
Smith,  Richard  Penn,  157 
Smith,  Roswell  B.,  447 
Smith,    Samuel     Francis,     245, 

Smith,  Seba,  350 
Smith,  Sydney,  77 
Smith,  William,  435 
Smollett,  Tobias,  116,  117 
Smyth,  Albert  H.,  305,  434 
Snow  Bound,  297,  300 
Snow-Bound  at  Eagle's,  189 
Snow   Image,  and    Other    Tales, 
The,  137 


Index 


487 


Social  Ideals  in  English  Letters, 

340 

Social  Strugglers,  203 
Society  and  Solitude,  328 
Soft  Side,  The,  195 
Soldiers  of  Fortune,  233 
Somebody's  Neighbours,  223 
Son  of  Royal  Langbirth,  The,  200 
Son  of  the  Old  Dominion,  A,  207 
Son  of  the  Wolf,  The,  235 
Song  for  American  Freedom,  A, 

59-60 

Song  of  Marion's  Men,  260 
Songs,  Legends,  and  Ballads,  319 
Songs  of  Labor,  300 
Songs  of  Summer,  315 
Songs  of  the  Sierras,  314 
Songs  of  the  Southern  Seas,  319 
Sonny,  232 
Sophocles,  308,  312 
Soprano,  a  Portrait,  217 
South   Atlantic    Quarterly,    The, 

45* 

Southern     Literary     Messenger, 

The,  151,  429,  440 
Southern  Review,  The,  450 
Southey,  Robert,  86,   252,   265, 

266 

Spanish  Peggy,  228 
Spanish  Student,  The,  278 
Sparks,  Jared,  98,  106,  276,  449 
Spar  row  grass  Papers,  The,  351, 

444 

Specimen  Days,  309,  343 
Specimens   of  Foreign  Standard 

Literature,  332 
Spectator,    The,    159,    325,   346, 

437 

Spectre  of  Power,  A,  208 
Spencer,  Herbert,  393»398>399, 

433 
Spenser,  Edmund,  248,  283,  284, 

287,  290 

Sphinx,  The,  442 
Sphinx's  Children,  The,  223 
Spinoza,  B.,  31^ 
Spirit  of  an  Illinois  Town,  The 

228 
Spofford,  Harriet  Prescott,  175- 

6 

Spoil  of  Office,  A,  229 
Spoils  of  Poynton,  The,  194 
Sprague,  Charles,  264 
Sprague,  William  B.,  379,  382 


'ightly   Romance    of  Marsac, 
The,  235 
Springfield  Republican,  The,  335 
Spy,  The,  iv,  126 
Squirrel  Inn,  The,  209 
Standish  of  Standish,  223 
Stanley,  Henry  M.,  335 
Star,  The,  307 
Star-Spangled  Banner,  The,  245, 

254 

Steadfast,  etc.,  223 
Stearns,  Winfrid  A.,  423 
Stedman,      Edmund     Clarence, 

154,     181,    301,    315,    316-8, 

321,  343-4,  452 
Steele,  Richard,  325,  346 
Stelligeri,  339 

Stephens,  Ann  Sophia,  172—3 
Stephens,  Edward,  172 
Stephens,  John  L.,  440 
Sterne,  Laurence,  116 
Steuben,    Frederic    W.,    Baron, 

409 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  372—3 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  154,  155 
Still  House  of  O'Darrow,  The,  234 
Stillwater  Tragedy,  The,  182,  445 
Stimson,  Frederic  Jesup,  218 
Stith,  W.,  89 
Stockton,    Frank    R.,     209-10, 

239,  444,  445,  447 
Stoddard,    Elizabeth    Barstow, 

178,  180-1 
Stoddard,  Richard  Henry,  180, 

198,  315,  440,  443 
Stone,  William  L.,  440 
Stories  of  a  Western  Town,  226 
Stories  of  Old  New  Spain,  223 
Storm  Centre,  The,  208 
Storrs,  Richard  Salter,  389-90 
Story,    Joseph,    250,    266,    365, 

372,  400,  402 

Story,  William  Wetmore,  266 
Story  of  a  Bad  Boy,  The,  181 
Story  of  a  Child,  The,  227 
Story  of  a  New  York  House,  The, 

219 

Story  of  a  Pathfinder,  The,  202 
Story  of  an    Untold  Love,    The, 

232,  446 

Story  of  Avis,  The,  191 
Story  of  Babette,  The,  231 
Story  of  Henry  and  Anne,  The, 

116 


488 


Index 


Story  of  Keedon  Bluffs,  The,  208 
Story  of  Kennett,  The,  183 
Story  of  Lawrence   Garth,    The, 

205 

Story  of  Margaret  Kent,  The,  205 
Story  of  Patsy,  The,  234 
Story  of  Sevenoaks,  The,  1 74 
Story  or  Two  from  an  Old  Dutch 

Town,  A,  175 
Stowe,  Calvin  E.,  169 
Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  iv,  133, 
169-71,    172,    182,    202,    343, 
350,  388,  439,  445,  454 
Strachey,  William,  3-4 
Strange  Disappearance,  A,  208^ 
Strange  True  Stories  of  Louisi 
ana,  210 

Stranger  in  Lowell,  The,  300 
Strangers  and  Wayfarers,  205 
Strength  and  Beauty,  394 
Stuart,  Mrs.  Alfred  O.     See  Stu 
art,  Ruth  McEnery 
Stuart,  Ruth  McEnery,  231-2 
Studies    in    German    Literature, 

334 

Studies  of  Good  and  Evil,  399 
Studies  of  the  Great  West,  443 
Study  of  Prose  Fiction,  340 
Stylus,  The,  152 
Suden  und  Nor  den,  144 
Sullivan 's  Island,  268 
Summer  in  Arcady,  229 
Summer  in  Leslie  Goldthwaite' s 

Life,  A,  182 

Summer  on  the  Lakes,  A,  331 
Sumner,  Charles,  276,  299,  372 
Sumner,  William  Graham,  407 
Sun,  The  (New  York),  218,  452 
Sunday  School,  The,  266 
Sunday  School  Teacher,  The,  197 
Sunnybank,  173 

Supernaturalism   in   New    Eng 
land,  300,  325 
Surly  Tim's  i  rouble,  201 
Sutherlands,  The,  176 
Suwanee  River,  The,  319 
Swallow  Barn,  146-7 
Sweet  Bells  out  of  Tune,  207 
Sweetheart  Manette,  215 
Swift,   Jonathan,    76,    166,   325, 

346 

Sword  and  the  Distaff,  The,  149 
Sword  of  Damocles,  The,  208 
Sylphs  of  the  Seasons,  252 


Sylvester,  John,  436 
Symonds,  J.  A.,  313 
Symphony,  The,  273 


Table  Talk,  331 
Tablets,  331 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adplphe,  196 
Tale  of  a  Lonely  Parish,  A,  216 
Tales    and   Sketched   by    a   Cos 
mopolite,  it;  7 

Tales  by  a  Country  Schoolmas 
ter,  145 

Tales  for  the  Marines,  166 
Tales   from    Two    Hemispheres, 

203 

Tales  of  a  Traveller,  123,  324 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  278 
Tales  of  Terror,  156 
Tales  of  the  Alhambra,  93,   123, 

324 

Tales  of  the  Argonauts,  etc.,  189 

Tales  of  the  Green  Mountains,  159 

Tales  of  the  Grotesque  and  the 
Arabesque,  151 

Tales  of  the  Home  Folks  in 
Peace  and  War,  214 

Tales  of  the  Night,  121 

Tales  of  the  Southern  Border,  166 

Taliesin:  A  Masque,  319 

Talisman,  The,  448 

Tallahassee  Girl,  A,  214 

Talmage,  Thomas  De  Witt,  390 

Tamerlane,  and  Other  Poems, 
270 

Tanglewood  Tales,  137 

Taquisara,  217 

Tarkington,  Newton  Booth,  233 

Tattler,  The,  308 

Taylor,  Bayard,  182-4,  303-7. 
314,  315,  334-5.  439.  441,  452 

Tecumseh,  364 

Tegner,  E.,  279 

Temper  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen 
tury  in  English  Literature,  340 

Temple  House,  180 

Ten  Great  Religions,  331 

Ten  Times  One  Is  Ten,  167-8 

Tenney,  Tabitha  G.,  117 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  Lord,  137, 
139,  150,  183,  243,  245,  266, 
267,  ?68,  277,  316,  340 

Tent  Life  in  Siberia,  335 


Index 


489 


Terhune,  Mary  Virginia,  173 

Terminations,  194 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace, 

147,  442,  445 
Thanatopsis,    247,    256,    258-9, 

449 
Thanet,    Octave.     See    French, 

Alice 

That  Affair  Next  Door,  208 
That  Fortune,  203 
That  Frenchman,  226 
That  Lass  o'  Lowrie's,  201 
Thaxter,  Celia,  446 
Their  Pilgrimage,  203 
Their   Silver  Wedding   Journey, 

443 

Their  Wedding  Journey,  199,  445 
Thief  in  the  Night,  A,  175-6 
Thirty  Poems,  260 
Thirty  Years'  View  of  the  Ameri 
can  Government,  350,  366 
Thomas,  Frederick  William,  158 
Thompson,  Charles  M.,  187 
Thompson,  Daniel  Pierce,  159 
Thompson,  John  R.,  451 
Thompson,  Maurice,  214-5,  274, 

446 

Thompson,  Will  H.,  319 
Thomson,  James,  248 
Thomson,  William  McClune,  381 
Thoreau,     Henry     David,     229, 

284,  294,  295,  3^2,  330,  331, 

336,  341,  442,  444 
Three  Fates,  The,  216 
Three  Partners,  The,  189 
Throckmorton,  235 
Through     One     Administration, 

201 
Through  the  Eye  of  the  Needle, 

201 

Thucydides,  34,  258 
Thurston,  Robert  Henry,  431-2 
Ticknor,   George,   97,    106,    107, 

276,  337,  338,  436 
Tid-Bits,  221 
Tiger  Lilies,  273 
Times,   The    (New  York),    199, 

225,  452-3 
Timothy's  Quest,  234 
Timothy  Titcomb's  Letters,  335 
Timrod,  Henry  B.,  243,  268-9, 

273,  297,  440 
T intern  Abbey,  258 
Titchener,  Edward  B.,  393 


Tiverton  Tales,  224 

To  a  Stray  Fowl,  294 

To  a  Waterfowl,  258,  259 

To  Have  and  to  Hold,  236,  446 

To  Leeward,  216 

Tocqueville,  de,  A.  C.  H.  €.,93, 

114 

Tokeah,  or  The  White  Rose,  144 
Token,  The,  448 
Tolstoi,  Count  Leo,  200 
Tom  Grogan,  228 
Tom  Thornton,  132,  438 
Tompkins  and  Other  Folks,  202 
Torrey,  Bradford,  341 
Torrey,  John,  424 
Tory  Lover,  The,  205,  446 
Touch  of  Sun,  A,  etc.,  220 
Tour  on  the  Prairies,  324 
Tourgee,  Albion  Winegar,  211 
Town  and  Country,  438 
Toy,  Crawford  Howell,  382-3 
Tragic  Muse,  The,  194 
Trailing  Arbutus,  The,  302 
Train,  George  Francis,  182 
Traits  of  American  Aborigine  st 

265 
Transatlantische    Reiseskizzen, 

^  J44 

Transformation,  137 
Transcendalist,  The,  442 
Transient  and  the  Permanent  in 

Christianity,  The,  387 
Traveller    from    Altruria,     The, 

200-1 
Travels  through  the  Interior  Parts 

of  North  America,  83—4 
Treasure  Island,  154 
Trent,  William  P.,  117,  131,  149 
Triple  Entanglement,  A,  207 
Trippings  of  Tom  Pepper,  The, 

161 
Tribune,  The  (New  York),  213, 

4S2 

Tribune  Lyrics,  317 
Tribune  Primer,  The,  351 
Trowbridge,     John     Townsend, 

171,  319,  445 

True  Relation  of  Virginia,  A,  3 
True  Repertory  of  the  Wrack  and 

Redemption    of    Sir    Thomas 

Gates,  Kt.,  A,  3-4 
Trumbull,  Benjamin,  92 
Trumbull,     James     Hammond, 

416 


49° 


Index 


Trumbull,  John,   42,   46,    50-1, 

55-7,  247,  248,  257,  346 
Trumps,  173-4 
Tucker,  George,  104,  145 
Tucker,  Nathaniel  Beverley,  146 
Tuckerman,  Henry  T.,  443 
Tudor,  William,  90,  436,  449 
Turn  of  the  Screw,  The,  1 94 
Turner,  Edward,  430 
Twain,  Mark,   187-8,   203,   239, 

344,  357-9,  444,  445,  447 
Twice-Told  Tales,  135,  136,  140, 

441,  449 
Twins  of  Table  Mountain,  The, 

189 

Two  Admirals,  The,  126 
Two  Bites  at  a  Cherry,  etc.,  182 
Two  Little  Confederates,  222 
Two  Magics,  The,  194 
Two  Men,  180 
Two  Vanrevels,  The,  233 
Tyler,  John,  370 
Tyler,  Moses  Coit,  vi,  97,  339, 


392,435 
yler, 


Tyler,  Royall,  117 
Typee,  164,  263 

U 

Uhland,  J.  L.,  279 

Uncle  'Lisha's  Shop,  228 

Uncle  Remus  and  His  Friends, 

214, 447 
Uncle   Remus:     His   Songs   and 

His  Sayings,  213—4,  352,  447 
Uncle  Remus'  Magazine,  214 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  iv,  169,  169- 

70,  171,  172,  202,  454 
Under  Dog,  The,  228 
Under  the  Redwoods,  189 
Under  the  Tree-Tops,  341 
Underbrush,  338 
Understudies,  225 
Underwood,  Joseph  R.,  367 
Undiscovered  Country,  The,  199 
Union  Magazine,  The,  443 
United  States  Gazette,  The,  304 
United   States   Literary   Gazette, 

The,  277,  438 
United     States     Magazine     and 

Democratic  Review,  The,  450 
United  States  Review,  The,  259, 

450 


United  States  Review  and  Liter 
ary  Gazette,  The,  438 
Universal  Asylum,  The,  435 
Unleavened  Bread,  221 
Unseen  World,  The,  398 
Utter  Failure,  An,  176 


Vagabondia,  201 

Vagabonds,  The,  319 

Valentino,  212 

Valley  of  Decision,  The,  235 

Valley  of  the  Shenandoah,   The, 

145 

Van  Bibber  and  Others,  233 
Van     Dyke,      Henry     Jackson, 

340-1 

Vanderlyn,  160 
Varieties  of  Religious  Experience, 

The,  398 

Vattel,  de,  Emmeric,  70 
Venetian  Life,  199,  342 
Venus  of  Milo,  The,  etc.,  314 
Vergilius,  234 
Verne,  Jules,  155 
Verplanck,  Gulian  C.,  437,  448 
Vestigia,  212 
Via  Crucis,  217,  447 
Vicarious  Sacrifice,  The,  387 
Victoria,  Queen,  277,  288,  335 
Victorian  Anthology,  ^,317 
Victorian  Poets,  344 
Victorious  Defeat,  A,  221 
Views  Afoot,  304,  334 
Vigil  of  Faith,  The,  144 
Villard,  Oswald  G.,  452 
Virey  und  die  Aristokraten,  Der, 

etc     144 
Virgil,  295,  395 
Virginia  Comedians,   The,  etc., 


. 

Virginian,  The,  233 

Vision  of  Columbus,  The,  247 

Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  The,  246, 

286,  290 

Voice  of  the  People,  The,  236 
Voices  of  Freedom,  300 
Voices  of  the  Night,  278 
Voltaire,  Franjois  Marie  Arouet, 

59,  339 

Voyage  to  the  Moon,  A,  145 
Voyages   of  the   Companions   of 

Columbus,  The,  324 


Index 


49 1 


w 

Wake -Robin,  341 

Walden,   or  Life  in  the  Woods, 

33° 
Walker,    Francis    Amasa,    400, 

406 

Wallace,  Lewis,  202 
Walpole,  Horace,  1 1 6 
Walsh,  Robert,  449,  450 
Walter  Kennedy,  etc.,  121 
Wandering  Jew,  The,  134 
War    Lyrics    and    Other  Poems, 

267 
Ward,   Artemus.      See  Browne, 

Charles  F. 
Ward,  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps, 

190—1 

Ward,  Mrs.  Humphry,  227 
Ward,  Nathaniel,  13-14 
Ware,  William,  160 
Warner,  Anna  Bartlett,  169 
Warner,    Charles    Dudley,    192, 

202-3,  322,  333,  347,  348,  357, 

443 

Warner,  Susan,  168-9 

Warren,  Catharine,  117 

Warren,  Mercy,  90,  250 

Warren's  Address  to  the  Ameri 
can  Soldiers,  265 

Washers  of  the  Shroud,  The,  290 

Washington,  George,  43,  90-1, 
94,  95-6,  98,  115,  251,  276, 
323,  324,  36°,  S62,  375,  378, 
436. 

Washington  Square,  193 

Watch  and  Ward,  193 

Watchers,  The,  302 

Water  Witch,  The,  etc.,  126 

Watkins,  35 

Watt,  Isaac,  383 

Watterson,  Henry,  454 

Way  Down  East,  350 

Wayland,  Francis,  380,  394 

Ways  of  the  Hour,  The,  128 

Ways  of  the  Spirit,  etc.,  381 

We  and  Our  Neighbours,  171 

We  Girls,  182 

Weaker  Sex,  The,  218 

Wealth  and  Worth,  163 

Web  of  Life,  The,  234 

Webbe,  John,  434 

Webber,  Charles  Wilkins,  165 

Weber,  Friedrich  A.,  417 


Webster,  Daniel,  98,  360,  367, 

368-9,  369-72,  373,  375 
Webster,  Noah,  409,  413 
Webster's  Dictionary,  396 
Week  on  the  Concord  and  Mer- 

rimac  Rivers,  330 
Welles,  Thomas,  405 
Wells,  Carolyn,  345,  350 
Wells,  David  Ames,  400,  405-6 
Wendell,  Barrett,  339-40 
Wensley,  444 

West  Point  Wooing,  A,  224 
Westcott,  Edward  Noyes,  232 
Western  Clearings,  162 
Western  Monthly  Magazine,  The, 

439 

Western  Review,  The,  450 
Westminster  Abbey,  317 
Wetherell,  Elizabeth.    See  War 
ner,  Susan 
Wharton,  Edith,  235 
What  Maisie  Knew,  194 
What 's  to  be  Done?,  163 
Wheaton,  Henry,  400,  402 
Whelpley,  James  D.,  450 
When  the  Sultan  Goes  to  Ispahan, 

316 

Where  the  Battle  was  Fought,  208 
Whosoever  Shall  Offend,  217 
Whibley,  Charles,  230,  238 
Whilomville  Stories,  230,  444 
Whipple,   Edwin  Percy,   338-9, 

441,  449 

Whirl  Asunder,  A,  234 
Whitaker,  Alexander,  7 
Whitcher,  Francis  Miriam,  349 
White,  Richard  Grant,  338,  444 
White,  William  A.,  236 
White  Heron,  A,  205 
White  Islander,  The,  227 
White  Jacket,  The,  etc.,  165 
White  Man's  Africa,  444 
White  Slave,  The,  159 
Whitlock,  Brand,  236 
Whitman,  George,  310 
Whitman,  Sarah  H.,  266 
Whitman,  Walt,  245,  292,  297, 

3°7~I3,  34i,  343,  4i3,  451 
Whitney,  Adeline  D.  T.,  182 
Whitney,  William  Dwight,  409, 

417-18 
Whittier,    John    Greenleaf,    73, 

74,    267,    290,    295,    296-303, 

323,  325-6,  370,  372,  439,  445 


492 


Index 


Wide,  Wide,  World,  The,  168-9 
Widow  Bedott  Papers,  The,  349 
Widow  Guthrie,  185 
Widow  Sprigg,  etc.,  349 
Wieland,    or    The    Transforma 
tion,  118-9 

Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas,  234,  446 
Wiggin,    Mrs.    Samuel    B.      See 

Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas 
Wigglesworth,  Michael,  21-22 
Wigwam  and  the  Cabin,  The,  149 
Wilberforce,  William,  361 
Wild  Honeysuckle,  The,  249 
Wild  Life,  144 
Wilde,  Richard  H.,  268 
Wilkins,   Mary  E.,    133,   224-5, 

238,  239,  444 
Will  to  Believe,  and  Other  Essays 

in  Popular  Philosophy,   The, 

342,  398 

Willard,  Emma  H.,  266 
Williams,  Jesse  Lynch,  236 
Williams,  Roger,  14—17 
Williamson,  Hugh,  92 
Willis,    Nathaniel   Parker,    152, 

174,  256,  303,  333-4,  438,  439, 

440,  441,  448 

Wilson,  Alexander,  436,  437 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  113,  114, 115, 

340,  408,  444,  445 
Winchell,  Alexander,  426 
Wind  in  the  Rose  Bush,  The,  225 
Wind  of  Destiny,  The,  219 
Wing-and-Wing,  The,  etc.,  126 
Wings  of  the  Dove,  The,  195 
Winsor,  Justin,  94,  112,  113 
Winsted  Herald,  The,  317 
Winter,  William,  177,  341 
Winthrop,  John  (ot  Mass.),  10- 

12,  35,  89,  134 
Winthrop,  John  (of  Conn.),  35, 

176 
Winthrop,  John   (of  Harvard), 

36»  37 

Winthrop,  Robert  Charles,  377 
Winthrop,  Theodore,  176-7,  187 
Wirt,  William,  365,  373,  374 
Wisdom  of  Fools,  The,  227 
Wise,  Henry  Augustus,  166 
Wise  Woman,  The,  224 
Wister,  Owen,  233 
VfaKJT of  Prague,  The,  216 
Witching  Times,  174 
With  the  Procession,  230 


Witherspoon,  John,  42,   70-71, 

380,  435 

Wolf,  Emma,  238 
Wolf,  The,  231 
Wolfert's  Roost,  324 
Woman  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen 
tury,  331 

Woman  of  Honour,  A,  218 
Woman's  Exchange,  The,  232 
Woman's  Reason,  A,  200,  447 
Wonder -Book  for  Girls  and  Boys, 

A>  J37 
Wonderful  One-Hoss  Shay,  The, 

295 

Wonder  smith,  The,  177 
Wood,  Sally  Keating,  121 
Wood,  William,  35 
Wood  Fire  in  No.  j,  The,  228 
Woodberry,     George     Edward, 

139    140,  154,  155,  340 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  379 
Woodcraft,  149 

Woodman,  Spare  that  Tree,  256 
Woodnotes,  442 
Woodward,  Robert,  428 
Woodworth,  Samuel,   124,   255, 

438 

Woolman,  John,  71—4,  300 
Woolsey,  Theodore  Dwight,  380, 

400,  403-4 
Woolson,   Constance  Fenimore, 

191,  238,  329,  444 
Worcester,      Joseph      Emerson, 

409,  414 

Word  of  Congress,  The,  346 
Words  and  Their  Uses,  338 
Wordsworth,  William,  55,  137, 

241,  242,  243,  245,  249,  251, 

252,  253,  257,  258,  264,  302, 

327 

Work,  etc.,  184 
World,   The   (New  York),   317, 

453 
World  and  the  Individual,  The, 

399 

World  of  Green  Hills,  A,  341 
Would  You  Kill  Him  ?    212 
Wound-Dresser,  The,  309 
Wounds  in  the  Rain,  230 
Wreck  of  the  Schooner  Hesperus, 

The,  282 

Wright,  George  F,.  445 
Wyatt,  Edith,  238 
Wych  Hazel,  169 


Index 


493 


Ximena,  etc.,  303 
Y 

Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching,  391 
Yankee,  The  (Boston),  125 
Yankee  in  Canada,  A,  330 
Yberville,  231 

Year  Worth  Living,  A,  185 
Year's  Life,  A,  285 
Yellow  Book,  The,  222 
Yemassee,  The,  148 
Yesterday  with  Authors,  338 
Youmans,   Edward   Livingston, 

432-3 

Youmans,  William  Jay,  433 
Young,  Charles  Augustus,  43 1 


Young,  Ira,  431 
Young  Maids  and  Old,  224 
Young  Mountaineers,  The,  208 
Young  Patroon,  The,  165 
Youth's   Companion,    The,    224, 
235,  334 


Zachary  Phips,  204 

Zadoc  Pine,  etc.,  219 

Zana,  etc.,  172-3 

Zenobia,  160 

Zophiel,  or  The  Bride  of  Seven, 

265-6 

Zoroaster,  216 
Zury,     the     Meanest     Man     in 

Spring  County,  212 


44  The  first  -volume  furnishes  the  most  satisfactory  history  of  Eng 
lish  letters  from  the  beginning,  up  to  but  not  including  Chaucer \  that  we 
have." — The  Independent. 


—THE—  * 

CAMBRIDGE    HISTORY 

—OF— 

ENGLISH 
LITERATURE 

Edited  by  A.  W.  WARD,  Litt.  D.,  Master  of  Peterhouse, 
and  A.  R.  WALLER,  M.A.,  Peterhouse 

To  be  in  14  Volumes,  Royal  8vo,  of  about  600  pages  each. 
Price  per  volume,  $2.50  net. 

Subscriptions  received  for  the  complete  work,  at  $31.50  net,  payable  at 
the  rate  of  $2.25  on  the  notification  of  the  publication  of  each  volume. 

Now  Ready 

Vol.    I.— From  the  Beginnings  to  the  Cycles    of  Romance. 
Vol.  II.— The  End  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Vol.  III.— Renascence  and  Reformation. 


THE  CAMBRIDGE  HISTORY  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE  will  cover  the 
whole  course  of  English  literature  from  the  origins  to  the  close  of 
the  Victorian  age.  Each  division  will  be  the  work  of  a  writer  who  has 
been  accepted  as  an  authority  on  the  subject,  while  the  editors  will 
retain  the  responsibility  for  the  character  of  the  work  as  a  whole.  The 
list  of  contributors  includes  American  as  well  as  English  and  Continental 
scholars. 

The  work  will  appeal  strongly  to  readers  in  general,  as  well  as  to 
the  literary  student.  Facts  that  have  been  duly  verified,  rather  than 
surmises  and  theories,  however  interesting,  form  the  foundation  of  the 
work.  Controversy  and  partisanship  of  every  kind  are  scrupulously 
avoided.  It  is  believed  that  the  work  will  furnish  a  comprehensive, 
strictly  accurate,  impartial,  and  impersonal  study  of  the  development  of 
the  English  language  and  literature. 

Send  for  Full  Descriptive  Circular 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

NEW  YORK  LONDON 


Works  in  Literature 


American  Literature,  16O7-1885 

By  Prof.  Charles  F.  Richardson 

Dartmouth  College 

Part  I.     The  Development  of  American  Thought. 
Part  II.     American  Poetry  and  Fiction.     Popular  Edition.     2  vols. 

in  one  octavo,  $3.50. 

"A  new  edition  of  Mr.  Richardson's  fine  work  is  a  proof  that  it  is 
admired  and  trusted  by  its  public.  .  .  .  Something  is  said,  carefully 
and  critically,  of  all  the  poets  and  prose  writers  that  have  been  worth 
mentioning  in  the  last  two  or  three  centuries." — Philadelphia.  Bulletin. 

A  History  of  American  Literature 

By  P.  Moses  Coit  Tyler 

Professor  of  American  History,  Cornell  University. 
Colonial  Period.      1606-1765.     Students'  Edition.     Octavo,  $3.00. 
The  American  Revolution,  1763-1783.     Students'  Edition.     Octavo, 

$3.00. 

"A  history  of  American  Literature  ample,  exact,  and  highly  enter 
taining.  To  Professor  Tyler  every  one  seriously  concerned  about 
American  literature  must  go.  He  is  loyal  to  the  past  of  his  country; 
and  even  the  errors  of  loyalty  have  something  in  them  from  which  we 
may  learn." — EDWARD  DOWDEN,  in  The  Academy. 

A  Literary  History  of  the  English  People 

From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Present  Day. 
By  J.  J.  Jusserand 

French   Ambassador  to  the  United  States.     Author  of  "The  English 

Novel  in  the  Time  of  Shakespeare,"  etc. 
Vol.  I.     From   the    Origins   to   the    Renaissance.    Octavo,    with 

Frontispiece,  net,  $3.50. 
Vol.  II.     Part  i.     From  the    Renaissance    to   the    Civil     War. 

Octavo,  with  Frontispiece,  net,  $3.50. 

In  Preparation 
Vol.  II.     Part  a.     From  the  Civil  War  to  Pope. 

"Mr.  Jusserand's  qualifications  for  the  task  which  he  has  undertaken 
are  of  a  high  order.  There  are  few  foreigners,  and  certainly  very  few 
Frenchmen,  who  have  so  intimate  a  knowledge  of  English  life;  he  has 
already  gained  great  distinction  as  an  original  investigator  in  more  than 
one  period  of  English  literary  history;  and  although  his  point  of  view  in 
the  present  work  is  unmistakably  that  of  a  Frenchman,  he  shows  a  degree 
of  sympathetic  insight  which  is  seldom  met  with  in  foreign  critics  of  lit 
erature." — London  Aihen&um, 

A  History  of  Comparative  Literature 

By  Frederick  Loliee 

Authorized  Translation  by  M.  A.  Power,  M.D.  8°.  Net,  $1.75 
A  brief  but  luminous  survey  of  an  immense  subject,  tracing  out  clearly 
the  origin,  the  progress,  and  the  interdependence  of  the  world's  literary 
developments.  M.  Loliee  steers  his^way  with  consummate  skill  between 
generalization  and  detail,  and  his  critical  summaries  are  as  suggestive  as 
they  are  succinct. 

NEW  YORK    G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS    LONDON 


Works  in  Literature 


Books  and  Their  Makers  During  the  Middle  Ages 

A  Study  of  the  Conditions  of  the  Production  and  Distribution  of 
Literature  from  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the 

Close  of  the  Seventeenth  Century 
By  GEO.  HAVEN  PUTNAM,  Litt.D. 

In  two  volumes,  8vo,  cloth  extra  (sold  separately),  each  $2.50 
Vol.  I.    476-1600  Vol.  II.     1500-1709 

"  It  is  seldom  that  such  wide  learning,  such  historical  grasp  and  insight, 
have  been  employed  in  their  service." — Atlantic  Monthly. 

Authors  and  Publishers 

A  MANUAL  OF  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  BEGINNERS  IN 

LITERATURE 

Comprising  a  description  of  publishing  methods  and  arrange 
ments,  directions  for  the  preparation  of  manuscript  for  the 
press,  explanations  of  the  details  of  book-manufacturing,  in 
structions  for  proof-reading,  specimens  of  typography,  the 
text  of  the  United  States  Copyright  Law,  and  information 
concerning  International  Copyrights,  together  with  general 
hints  for  authors. 

By  G.  H.  P.  and  J.  B.  P. 
Seventh  Edition,  re-written  with  additional  material. 

8vo,  gilt  top,  net,  $1.75 

"  This    handy  and  useful  book  is  written  with  perfect  fairness  and 
abounds  in  hints  which  writers  will  do  well  to  '  make  a  note  of.'     . 
There  is  a  host  of  other  matters  treated  succinctly  and  lucidly  which  it 
behooves  beginners  in  literature  to  know,  and  we  can  recommend  it  most 
heartily  to  them." — London  Spectator, 

Authors  and  Their  Public  in  Ancient  Times 

A  Sketch  of  Literary  Conditions  and  of  the  Relations  with  the 
Public  of  Literary  Producers,  from  the  Earliest  Times 

to  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire 
By  GEO.  HAVEN  PUTNAM,  Litt.D. 

Author  of  "  The  Question  of  Copyright,"   "  Books  and  their  Makers 

During  the  Middle  Ages,"  etc. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  lamo,  gilt  top,  $1.50 
"The  work  shows  broad  cultivation,  careful  scholarly  research,  and 
original  thought.     The  style  is  simple  and  straightforward,  and  the  vol 
ume  is  both  attractive  and  valuable." — Richmond  Times. 

The   Censorship  of    the  Church  of   Rome   and  Its 

Influence  upon  the  Production  and  the 

Distribution   of  Literature 

A   Study  of  the  History  of  the  Prohibitory    and  Expurgatory 

Indexes,  together  with  some  Consideration  of  the  Effects  of 

Protestant  Censorship  and  of  Censorship  by  the  State 

By  GEO.  HAVEN  PUTNAM,  Litt.D. 

Two  volumes.    8vo.    Uniform  with  "Books  and  Their  Makers." 

Per  volume,  net,  $2.50 

"A  work  of  remarkable  erudition.  ...  I  find  it  characterized  by 
rare  large-mindedness  and  historic  impartiality.  .  .  .  The  subject  is 
one  into  which  few  writers  have  had  the  courage  to  delve.  The  book 
should  prove  of  much  interest  to  scholars.  .  .  .  The  subject  has  been 
treated  in  a  masterly  manner." — John  Ireland,  Archbishop  of  Minnesota. 

New  York         G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS         London 


Works  in  Literature 


Anthology  of  Russian  Literature 

From  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Present  Time 

By  Leo  Wiener 

Assistant  Professor  of  Slavic  Languages,  Harvard  University 

Part  I.     From  the  Tenth  Century  to  the  Close  of  the  Eighteenth 

Century. 
Part  II.     The  Nineteenth  Century.      2  vols.,  8vo,  with  photogravure 

frontispieces,  about  1000  pp.,  gilt  tops.     (By  mail,  $6.50.)     Net,  $6.00. 

Sold  separately.     Each,  net,  $3.00. 

"Probably  the  first  really  adequate  anthology  of  Russian  literature  in 
English.  It  will  prove  a  welcome  addition  to  the  books  available  to  the 
student  of  Russian  letters.  The  arrangement  is  admirable." — Philadel 
phia  Ledger. 

History  of  German  Literature 

By  John  G.  Robertson 

Professor  in  the  University  of  Strassburg 
Octavo.     Net,  $3.50 

"Dr.  Robertson's  book  is  worthy  of  genuine  praise.  It  is  the  result 
of  most  conscientious  study  and  very  wide  reading;  is  written  without 
any  personal  bias,  and  in  a  most  sympathetic  spirit ;  avoids  all  fanciful- 
ness  and  flippancy,  and  strives  with  remarkable  success  for  completeness 
of  information  as  to  names,  dates,  synopses  of  books,  and  similar  detail. 
.  This  manual  is  a  thoroughly  trustworthy  Baedeker  for  the 
familiar  routes  in  German  literature,  superseding  once  for  all  the  sorry 
lot  of  dilettanteish  compilations  which  have  served  as  guidebooks  in  this 
domain  during  the  last  generation." — The  Nation. 

The  Lost  Art  of  Reading 

(Mount  Tom  Edition) 

I.  The  Child  and  the   Book 

A  Manual  for  Parents  and  Teachers  in  Schools  and 
Colleges 

II.  The  Lost  Art  of  Reading 

or,  The  Man  and  The  Book 

By  Gerald  Stanley  Lee 

New  Edition.    Two  volumes.    Crown  8vo.    Sold  separately. 
Each,  net,  $1.50 

"  I  must  express  the  joy  I  have  had,  the  enthusiasm  I  have  felt,  in 
gloating  over  every  page  of  what  I  believe  is  the  most  brilliant  book  of 
any  season  since  Carlyle's  and  Emerson's  pens  were  laid  aside. 
It  is  full  of  humor,  rich  in  style,  and  eccentric  in  form,  all  suffused  with 
the  perfervid  genius  of  a  man  who  is  not  merely  a  thinker  but  a  force." 
— WM.  SLOANE  KENNEDY  in  Boston  Transcript. 


NEW  YORK    G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS    LONDON 


LD21A-607H-6/69 
(J9096slO)476-A-32 


Y.CI04471 


208584 


